FROM   THE    PREFACE   TO  THE 
"HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  SCHOOLS" 

So  many  school  histories  of  the  United  States  are  already  in 
existence,  and  their  preparation  has  been  so  excellent  in  the 
details  of  idea  and  execution,  that  some  apology  seems  to  be 
needed  for  this  addition  to  their  number.  The  apology  will  be 
found,  it  is  hoped,  in  the  special  purpose  with  which  this  book 
has  been  written. 

It  is  submitted  that  the  designs  which  have  usually  controlled 
our  school  histories  are  impossible  of  fulfilment,  and,  even  if 
possible,  would  not  serve  the  most  useful  purpose.  There  are 
already  in  existence  books  in  abundance  which  tell  stories  in  the 
manner  most  attractive  to  pupils  at  the  most  imaginative  period 
of  life  ;  and  the  pupil's  mind,  if  properly  directed  b*y  the  teacher, 
will  turn  to  them  naturally  and  derive  more  satisfaction  and  in 
struction  from  them  than  can  be  gained  from  any  school  history 
of  usable  compass.  It  hardly  seems  wise  for  a  school  history  to 
to  force  itself  into  a  hopeless  competition  in  a  field  which*  has 
already  been  so  fully  preempted.  History  is  a  task  and  a  method 
of  mental  discipline ;  our  school  histories  attempt  to  relieve  it, 
as  no  one  attempts  to  relieve  grammar  or  arithmetic,  by  story 
telling.  One  result  has  been  that  the  history  of  the  compara 
tively  unimportant  colonial  period  has  been  assigned  an  inordi 
nately  large  space.  So  much  room  is  given  to  the  stories  of 
Smith  and  Pocahontas,  Putnam  and  the  wolf,  and  similar  epi 
sodes,  that  the  real  history  of  the  United  States  is  cramped, 
marred,  and  brought  to  a  lame  and  impotent  conclusion.  Judg 
ing  from  the  space  usually  assigned  to  each,  a  reader  must  con 
clude  that  the  history  of  the  United  States  deserves  a  much 
larger  treatment  for  the  time  when  the  United  States  did  not 


«.:•  * .-;: 

vi       •    -•'  •'     .-,•,• 

exist  than  for  the  time  of  its  prominence  as  a  nation — for  a  time 
when  the  population  was  but  200,000  than  for  the  time  when 
the  population  was  50,000,000. 

The  reason  generally  advanced  for  the  transfer  of  the  stirring 
stories  of  the  past  out  of  the  reading  book  or  general  reading 
into  the  school  histories  is  that  they  stimulate  the  minds  of  pupils 
to  an  emulation  of  the  great  deeds  which  are  narrated.  In 
isolated  cases  the  reason  may  be  valid ;  there  may  have  been 
cases  in  which  the  mind  of  some  pupil  has  been  thus  stimulated 
with  useful  effect.  But  the  mass  of  pupils  have  no  opportunity 
to  exhibit  any  such  result ;  their  need  is  to  learn  from  the  his 
tory  of  the  past  how  best  to  perform  the  simple  and  homely 
duties  of  good  citizenship.  Very  few  of  the  boys  in  our  schools 
will  ever  have  an  opportunity  to  exhibit,  in  the  foundation  of  a 
colony,  the  patient  virtues  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  or  the  exec 
utive  ability  of  John  Smith  ;  almost  every  one  of  them  will  soon 
be  called  upon  to  give  his  conclusion  by  vote  upon  questions 
which  involve  some  understanding  of  the  political,  financial,  or 
economic  problems  of  the  past.  It  seems  unfair,  as  well  as  un 
wise,  to  disregard  the  needs  of  the  great  mass  in  favor  of  the 
desires  of  the  very  few,  especially  as  the  latter  will  be  certain  to 
gratify  their  desires  in  a  more  natural  way  elsewhere. 

In  the  ordinary  school  course,  no  place  can  well  be  made  for 
treatises  on  the  duties  of  citizenship,  on  political  economy,  or 
on  finance.  Even  if  they  could  be  introduced,  their  most  valu 
able  portions  would  consist  of  deductions  from  the  events  re 
corded  in  a  history  such  as  this.  The  effort  to  inculcate  the  les 
son  with  the  facts,  if  applied  to  the  usual  school  history,  would 
make  it  hopelessly  bulky.  Something  must  be  dropped  ;  and  it 
seems  unwise  to  retain  the  stories  where  they  conflict  with  far 
more  important  matters  whose  omission  the  ordinary  school 
course  will  never  supply.  The  typical  schoolboy  must  get  his 
political,  economic,  and  financial  education  from  his  school  his 
tory  of  the  United  States,  if  he  is  to  get  it  at  all. 

The  design  of  this  book,  then,  is  not  simply  to  detail  the 
events  which  make  up  the  history  of  the  United  States,  but  to 
group  those  events  which  seem  likely  to  shed  light  on  the  respon- 


PREFACE 


.  J 

j    y  3 

Vll 


sibilities  of  the  citizen  to  the  present  or  future,  and  to  give  the 
student  the  light  in  connection  with  the  event.  In  this  process 
the  effort  has  been  made,  with  caution  and  with  a  studied  sim 
plicity  of  language,  to  interest  the  pupil  in  the  wonderful  devel 
opment  of  the  United  States  and  the  difficult  economic  problems 
which  have  grown  out  of  it.  If,  in  so  doing,  the  peculiar  prov 
ince  of  the  story-writer  has  been  abandoned,  the  abandon 
ment  does  not  seem  to  the  writer  a  real  sacrifice.  Wherever 
further  compression  has  been  necessary,  it  has  been  applied  at 
the  beginning,  at  the  time  when  there  was  no  "United  States," 
with  the  design  of  giving  as  much  space  as  possible  to  our 
national  history.  And  in  every  place  where  it  has  seemed 
possible,  the  attention  of  the  pupil  has  been  directed  to  the 
peculiar  circumstances  and  limitations  of  the  time  under  con 
sideration,  and  to  the  idea  of  growth  to  be  attained  by  a  com 
parison  with  the  present.  For  much  the  same  reasons,  other 
topics,  not  essential  to  the  main  subject,  such  as  the  tribal 
institutions  of  the  aborigines,  and  the  Spanish  conquests  of 
Mexico  and  Peru,  have  been  left  untouched.  And,  in  nar 
rating  the  wars  of  the  United  States,  while  the  effort  has  been 
made  to  give  the  pupil  a  definite  idea  of  the  purposes,  plans, 
and  results  of  campaigns,  it  has  not  seemed  best  to  cumber 
the  narration  with  a  catalogue  of  engagements  and  com 
manders,  whose  very  names  are  only  a  spring  of  confusion  to 
the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

As  the  book  is  not  intended  to  be  a  story-book,  so  it  is  not 
intended  to  be  a  picture-book.  Maps  in  abundance  seem  to 
the  author  the  only  legitimate  embellishment  of  a  school  his 
tory.  While  the  pictures  in  this  volume  have  been  restricted 
to  illustrations  of  such  persons  and  things  as  are  pertinent  to 
the  text,  they  have  been  introduced  with  regret,  and  only  as 
a  yielding  to  the  present  prejudice  which  denies  an  effective 
audience  to  the  school  history  not  so  illustrated.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  time  will  soon  come  when  the  space  now  sur 
rendered  to  the  graphic  additions  of  the  average  schoolboy's 
pencil  will  be  utilized  to  better  purpose. 

The  commanding  position    already  attained    by  the  United 


viii  PREFACE 

States,  which  can  only  become  more  overshadowing  in  the  future, 
has  made  it  evident  that  the  future  American  citizen  must  be 
taught  to  think  more  of  the  responsibilities  of  the  present  than 
of  the  picturesque  events  of  the  past.  The  enormous  political 
edifice  which  has  appeared  in  central  North  America  is  ris 
ing  with  such  increasing  swiftness  that  every  good  citizen  must 
feel  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for  its  continuance  and 
good  management.  This  volume  is  an  attempt  to  lead  Amer 
ican  youth  to  be  "good  citizens,"  in  this  sense  of  the  phrase  ; 
and,  whatever  defects  of  execution  it  may  show,  the  writer  is 
confident  that  the  spirit  of  the  attempt  will  have  the  sym 
pathy  of  every  friend  of  education. 

PRINCETON,  N.  J.,  June  i,  1885. 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTE 

To  THE  THIRD  EDITION  (1897) 

The  previous  editions  of  this  work  have  undergone  a  revision 
at  the  hands  of  Prof.  W.  M.  Daniels  of  Princeton  University. 
The  changes  made  consist  in  minor  alterations  in  the  body  of 
the  text  -j  in  the  substitution  of  the  returns  of  the  Census  of  1890 
for  the  earlier  figures;  and  in  the  addition  of  two  chapters 
covering  the  last  two  Administrations,  and  a  Bibliography. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I. — DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  EXPLORATION  :  1492-1540. . .  i 

CHAPTER  II. — ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT  :  1540-1607 13 

CHAPTER  III. — GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ENGLISH  COLONIZA 
TION  :  1607-1750 22 

CHAPTER  IV. — THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES  :  1620-1750 30 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony 30 

New  Hampshire 37 

Connecticut 37 

Rhode  Island 41 

Vermont 42 

New  England  in  General 43 

CHAPTER  V. — THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES:  1607-1750 51 

Virginia 51 

Maryland 55 

North  Carolina 57 

South  Carolina 60 

Georgia 62 

The  Southern  Colonies  in  General 64 

CHAPTER  VI. — THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES  :  1623-1750 67 

New  York 67 

New  Jersey  72 

Pennsylvania 73 

Delaware 76 

The  Colonies  in  General 76 

CHAPTER  VII. — THE  STRUGGLE  FOR   ENGLISH  SUPREMACY  :  1750- 

1763 83 

French  Settlement 83 

The  French  and  Indian  War 88 

State  of  the  Colonies  in  1763 97 

CHAPTER  VIII.— COLONIAL  RESISTANCE  :  1763-1775 102 

The  Stamp  Act 102 

Lexington  and  Concord 113 

State  of  the  Colonies  in  1775 115 

CHAPTER  IX. — THE  REVOLUTION  :  1775-1781 120 

ix 


x  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Events  at  Boston 124 

Events  in  Canada   127 

Events  in  England  and  on  the  Coast 128 

Independence 130 

Events  in  the  Middle  States  :   1776-1778 131 

Burgoyne's  Expedition,  1777 139 

Aid  from  France 144 

Events  in  the  North  after  1778 146 

Events  on  the  Sea 153 

Events  in  the  South  :   1778-1781 155 

Yorktown,  1781 162 

Peace,  1783 165 

CHAPTER  X. — THE  CONFEDERATION  :  1777-1789 171 

Failure  of  the  Confederation 171 

Formation  of  the  Constitution 176 

State  of  the  Country  in  1789 183 

CHAPTER  XL— FEDERALIST  CONTROL  :  1789-1801 189 

Washington's  Administrations  :   1789-1797 189 

John  Adams's  Administration  :   1797-1802 202 

CHAPTER  XII. — REPUBLICAN  SUPREMACY  :  1801-1809 210 

Jefferson's  Administrations  :   1801-1809 210 

Domestic  Affairs 213 

Foreign  Affairs 217 

CHAPTER  XIII. — THE  SECOND  WAR  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN:  1812-14.  222 

Madison's  Administrations  :   1809-1817 222 

Failures  in  the  North  :   1812-14 225 

Successes  on  the  Ocean   229 

Successes  on  the  Lakes  :    1813-14 236 

Disasters  on  the  Atlantic  Coast 239 

Dissatisfaction  at  Home 241 

Successes  in  the  North,  1814 242 

Successes  in  the  Southwest  :   1813-15 243 

Peace 246 

CHAPTER  XIV. — SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  READJUSTMENT  :  1817-28.  254 

Monroe's  Administrations  :   1817-25 254 

John  Quincy  Adams's  Administration  :   1825-9 263 

CHAPTER  XV. — JACKSON  AND  VAN  BUREN  :  1829-41 271 

Jackson's  Administrations  :   1829-37 271 

Political  Affairs 285 

Van  Buren's  Administration  :   1837-41 292 

CHAPTER  XVI. — TEXAS  AND  THE  MEXICAN  WAR:  1841-9 301 

Harrison's  and  Tyler's  Administrations  :   1841-5 301 

Folk's  Administration  :   1845-9 309 

Internal  Affairs 309 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

Origin  of  the  Mexican  War 312 

Operations  on  the  Pacific 315 

Operations  in  North'ern  Mexico 3'i6 

Operations  in  Central  Mexico 317 

Peace 321 

CHAPTER  XVII. — THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE  TERRITORY  :  1849-57.  327 

Taylor's  and  Fillmore's  Administrations  :   1849-53 327 

Pierce's  Administration  :   1853-7 333 

Internal  Affairs 333 

Foreign  Affairs 334 

Slavery  and  Politics 336 

CHAPTER  XVIII. — THE  EVE  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR  :  1857-61 343 

Buchanan's  Administration  :   1857-61 343 

Internal  Affairs 343 

Slavery  and  Politics 348 

Sectional  Division 352 

Secession 354 

CHAPTER  XIX. — THE  WAR  FpR  THE  UNION  :  1861-65 362 

Lincoln's  Administration  :   1861-65 362 

Events  of  1861 362 

Events  of  1862 375 

On  the  Coast 381 

Events  of  1863 398 

In  the  East 398 

In  the  West 400 

On  the  Coast 405 

Internal  Affairs 407 

Foreign  Affairs - 408 

Events  of  1864 409 

In  the  East 409 

In  the  West 413 

On  the  Coast 418 

On  the  Ocean 421 

Internal  Affairs 422 

Events  of  1865 423 

Conclusion  of  the  War 423 

Death  of  President  Lincoln 428 

Military  Summary  of  the  War 429 

CHAPTER  XX. — RECONSTRUCTION 440 

Johnson's  Administration 440 

Reconstruction 441 

Impeachment 446 

Internal  Affairs 448 

Grant's  Administrations  :   1869-77 450 


xii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Foreign  Affairs 45° 

Internal  Affairs 452 

The  End  of  Reconstruction 455 

Political  Affairs 458 

CHAPTER  XXL — ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT 464 

Hayes's  Administration  :   1877-81 464 

Internal  Affairs 464 

Finances 4^6 

Foreign  Affairs 4^8 

Political  Affairs 4^8 

Garfield's  and  Arthur's  Administrations  :   1881-5 469 

CHAPTER  XXII. — CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON 475 

Cleveland's  First  Administration  :   1885-9 475 

Harrison's  Administration  :   1889-93 480 

Cleveland's  Second  Administration  :   1893-7 488 

CHAPTER  XXIIL— EXPANSION  :   1897-1900 500 

APPENDIX  I. — THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE,.. 531 

APPENDIX  II. — THE  ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION 535 

APPENDIX  III.— THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 543 

APPENDIX  IV.— FORMATION  OF  THE  STATES 559 

APPENDIX  V.— GROWTH  OF  THE  STATES 560 

APPENDIX  VI. — GROWTH  OF  THE  CITIES 562 

APPENDIX  VII. — POPULATION  OF  THE  SECTIONS 564 

APPENDIX  VIII.— CONGRESSIONAL   REPRESENTATION    OF   THE   SEC 
TIONS  5^4 

APPENDIX  IX. — THE  SECTIONS  IN  1870-1900 565 

APPENDIX  X. — CABINET  OFFICERS  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATIONS 567 

APPENDIX  XL— WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS  (EXTRACTS)  ...  575 
INDEX..  577 


MAPS 

In  the  historical  maps,  the  colors  show  the  political  divisions  at  the  time 
the  map  refers  to  ;  but,  to  aid  in  impressing  these  on  the  memory,  other 
political  divisions,  and  prominent  facts  that  may  not  strictly  belong  to  the 
time,  are  sometimes  indicated  in  black. 

COLORED. 

FACING    PAGE 

THE  WORLD,  SHOWING  THE    TERRITORIAL    ACQUISITIONS 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES Frontispiece 

PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES r 

EUROPEAN  PROVINCES,  1655 22 

BRITISH  CESSIONS  TO  1732 76 

THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  THE  PEACE  OF  1783 166 

ACQUISITIONS  OF  TERRITORY  (1776-1867) 214 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1830 276 

THE  AREAS  OF  SECESSION 354 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1900,  EXCLUSIVE  OF  INSULAR  POSSESSIONS  500 

UNCOLORED. 

PAGE 

COLUMBUS'S  VOYAGE 6 

ATLANTIC  DISCOVERIES 8 

DE  SOTO'S  EXPEDITION 10 

ATLANTIC  SETTLEMENTS 14 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY  COLONY 36 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  COLONY 37 

CONNECTICUT  COLONY 38 

RHODE  ISLAND  COLONY 42 

EARLY  FRENCH  WARS 47 

VIRGINIA  COLONY 55 

MARYLAND 56 

CAROLINA 60 

THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES 71 

FRENCH  FORTS 85 

THE  FRENCH  WAR 95 

THE  REVOLUTION  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 124 

BATTLE  OF  BUNKER  HILL 125 

CAMPAIGN  IN  MIDDLE  STATES 133 

xiii 


xiv  MAPS 

PAGE 

CAPTURE  AND  EVACUATION  OF  PHILADELPHIA 186 

BURGOYNE'S  EXPEDITION 141 

THE  BRITISH  ISLES 154 

REVOLUTION  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 156 

THE  YORKTOWN  CAMPAIGN 163 

MAIN  MOVEMENTS  OF  BRITISH  TROOPS  BY  LAND  AND  SEA 164 

BARBARY  STATES , 217 

OPERATIONS  ON  THE  LAKES 227 

ATTACK  ON  WASHINGTON — COURSE  OF  THE  BRITISH 240 

NIAGARA  FRONTIER 243 

EXPEDITION  AGAINST  NEW  ORLEANS 245 

SEMINOLE  WAR 283 

WAR  WITH  MEXICO 313 

SCOTT'S  MARCH  TO  MEXICO 319 

FORT  SUMTER  AND  CHARLESTON  HARBOR 364 

OPERATIONS  IN  VIRGINIA 369 

WASHINGTON  AND  VICINITY 372 

OPERATIONS  IN  THE  WEST 378 

HAMPTON  ROADS 382 

NEW  ORLEANS 384 

OPERATIONS  IN  THE  EAST 387 

SEVEN  DAYS'  BATTLES 391 

FIRST  INVASION  OF  THE  NORTH 393 

SECOND  INVASION  OF  THE  NORTH 399 

THE  VICKSBURG  CAMPAIGN 401 

MURFREESBORO  TO  ATLANTA 405 

OPERATIONS  IN  THE  EAST 410 

SHERMAN'S  MARCH 417 

ON  THE  COAST 4J9 

OPERATIONS  IN  VIRGINIA 424 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 511 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 520 

PORTO  Rico 523 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

• 

PAGE 

SECTION  OF  BEHAIM'S  GLOBE 3 

CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS 4 

THE  CARAVELS  OF  COLUMBUS 5 

SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH 16 

HENRY  HUDSON 19 

THE  MAYFLOWER 31 

GOVERNOR  JOHN  WINTHROP 33 

SITE  OF  BOSTON  IN  1620 35 

CHARTER   OAK 40 

CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH 52 

PETER  STUYVESANT 68 

NEW  YORK  CITY  IN  1656 70 

WILLIAM  PENN 75 

SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN 84 

WILLIAM  PITT 91 

JAMES  WOLFE 92 

QUEBEC 93 

BRITISH  STAMP 103 

PATRICK  HENRY 104 

GEORGE  III 106 

FANEUIL  HALL,  BOSTON 107 

JOHN  HANCOCK 108 

CARPENTER'S  HALL 121 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 123 

UNION  FLAG 126 

RATTLESNAKE  FLAG 127 

PHILIP  SCHUYLER. 128 

LIBERTY  BELL 131 

INDEPENDENCE  HALL  IN  1776 132 

MARQUIS  DE  LA  FAYETTE 137 

GEN.  JOHN  BURGOYNE 140 

HORATIO  GATES 143 

CONTINENTAL  MONEY 149 

ANTHONY  WAYNE • 151 

xv 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 


JOHN  ANDRE 152 

JOHN  PAUL  JONES 153 

NATHANIEL  GREENE 159 

STATE-HOUSE  AT  ANNAPOLIS 177 

ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 182 

WASHINGTON 188 

MOUNT  VERNON 199 

FITCH'S  STEAMBOAT , 200 

CINCINNATI  IN   1787  (FORT  WASHINGTON) 201 

JOHN  ADAMS 203 

THE  CAPITOL  AT  WASHINGTON 206 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON 212 

ROBERT  FULTON 215 

JAMES  MADISON . . . ; 222 

AMERICAN  GUNBOAT 232 

JAMES  LAWRENCE 233 

OLIVER  H.  PERRY 237 

THOMAS  MACDONOUGH 238 

JAMES  MONROE 254 

JOHN  C.  C ALHOUN 263 

JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS 264 

HENRY  CLAY 267 

ANDREW  JACKSON 272 

EARLY  RAILROAD  TRAIN 273 

CHICAGO  IN  1830 — FORT  DEARBORN 275 

BRYANT,  WHITTIER,  LONGFELLOW,  HOLMES 278 

HAWTHORNE,  IRVING,  POE,  COOPER 280 

DANIEL  WEBSTER 281 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN 293 

WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON 302 

JOHN  TYLER , 302 

SAMUEL  F.   B.  MORSE 306 

JAMES  K.  POLK 309 

THE  HOE  PRINTING-MACHINE 310 

ANCIENT  HAND  PRINTING-PRESS 310 

WINFIELD  SCOTT 318 

ZACHARY  TAYLOR - 327 

MlLLARD   FlLLMORE ,..     327 

SALMON  P.   CHASE 331 

FRANKLIN   PIERCE 333 

CHARLES  SUMNER 340 

JAMES  BUCHANAN 343 

LOWELL,  EMERSON,  PARKMAN,  MOTLEY 346 

KING  COTTON 349 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

PAGE 

SECESSION  HALL 355 

SECESSION   COCKADE 355 

JEFFERSON  DAVIS 356 

ALEXANDER  H.   STEPHENS 358 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 362 

FORT  SUMTER 365 

GEORGE  B.  MCCLELLAN 370 

ULYSSES   S.  GRANT 373 

ALBERT  SIDNEY  JOHNSTON , 376 

WESTERN  GUNBOATS 380 

CONFEDERATE  RAM 381 

JOHN  ERICSSON 382 

THE  MONITOR  AND  THE  MERRIMAC 383 

DAVID  G.   FARRAGUT 385 

JOSEPH  E.  JOHNSTON 388 

ROBERT  E.  LEE 389 

THOMAS  J.   JACKSON 390 

AMBROSE  E.  BURNSIDE 394 

THE  ALABAMA 397 

GEORGE  G.  MEADE 400 

W,  T.  SHERMAN 414 

GEORGE  H.  THOMAS 416 

PHILIP  H.   SHERIDAN 426 

SIGNATURES  OF   GRANT  AND  LEE 426 

WILLIAM  H.   SEWARD 429 

ANDREW  JOHNSON 440 

EDWIN  M.  STANTON 447 

R.  B.   HAYES 465 

JAMES  A.  GARFIELD  470 

CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR 470 

GROVER  CLEVELAND 475 

BENJAMIN  HARRISON 480 

WILLIAM  MCK.INLEY 500 


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UNITED    STATES 

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and  over. 


HISTORY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


CHAPTER   I 

DISCOVERY  AND   EARLY   EXPLORATION 
1492-1540 

1.  The  United  States  of  America  cover  the  central  por 
tion  of  North  America,  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the 
Pacific.      Four    hundred    years     ago     this    territory    was 
unknown  to  men  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.      Its  lakes, 
rivers,  and  mountains  were  just  as  we  know  them  now; 
and   the   face   of  the    country   has    changed    very    little, 
except  in  tho  disappearance  of  the  forests.      But  the  great 
cities,  the  railroads,  the  telegraphs,  and  all  the  works  of 
civilized    man    were    lacking.       The    territory    has    been 
changed  from  a  wilderness  to  the  abode  of  one  of  the  most 
powerful  nations  of  the  earth  ;  and  the  story  of  this  change 
is  the  history  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

2.  The  Inhabitants  of  America,  when  the  country  was 
discovered  by  Europeans,  were  copper-colored  savages,  to 
whom  Columbus  gave  the  name  of  Indians,  because  he 
thought  that  he  had  found  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  or 
India.    The  Indians  built  no  cities  or  towns,  made  no  great 
inventions,  had  no  written   language,  and  led  a  rude  and 
wandering  life.      Their  chief  business  and  pleasure  were 
in  war  and  hunting,   the  women  doing  the  work  of  the 
wigwam  and  the  field.      Whence  the  Indians  came  we  do 
not  know.      Only  in   Mexico  and  Peru  did  the  European 


2  DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  EXPLORATION 

explorers     find     anything    resembling    permanent    com 
munities  or  orderly  governments. 

3.  The  Indians  have  been  gradually  pushed  back  from 
the  coast  by  the  white  settlers,  until  now  they  are  almost 
all  beyond  the  Mississippi,  controlled  and  cared  for  by  the 
Government  of  the  United  States.    When  America  was  dis 
covered  the  Indians  were  grouped  in  tribes,  though  there 
was    no    exact    boundary  line    between  the  countries    of 
different  tribes.      The  Indians  of  the  Atlantic  coast  were 
generally  Algonquins ;  the  names  of  some  of  their  tribes 
are  preserved  in  our  names  of  places,  such  as  Narragansett, 
Massachusetts,   and   the  Indian    names    of  Maine.      The 
Indians  of  the  interior  or  Middle  States  were   Iroquois; 
their  strongest  branch  was  a  confederacy  in  New  York, 
called    the    Six    Nations,    composed    of    the     Mohawks, 
Oneidas,   Onondagas,  Cayugas,  Senecas,  and  Tuscaroras 
(§  95)-      On    the    other   side    of  the    Iroquois,   along   the 
Mississippi,  there  were  other  Alonquins,  some  of  whom, 
as    the    Shawnees,    Peorias,    Pottawattomies,    Sacs,    and 
Foxes,   still   survive   in  the   Indian   Territory  across   the 
Mississippi;  while  others,  as  the  Illinois,  are  remembered 
only  by  names  of  places.     The  tribes  of  the  south,  Creeks, 
Cherokees,  Chickasaws,  and  others,  were  kindred  to  the 
Iroquois.      Their  descendants  are  also  in  the  Indian  Ter 
ritory. 

4.  Europe  had  advanced  so  far  in  civilization,  about  the 
year  1450,  that  its  people  were   prepared  to  discover  and 
conquer  a  new  world.      They  had  discovered  the  use  of 
gunpowder,  which  made  them  superior  to  peoples  who  did 
not  possess  it;   of  the  mariner's  compass,  which  enabled 
them  to  sail  out  of  sight  of  land,  and  thus  discover  new 
countries;  and  of  printing  by  movable  types,  which  made 
books  abundant,  and  thus  spread  the  news  of  discoveries. 
Many  of  them  had  come  to  believe  that  the  earth  was 


CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS  3 

round,  though  nobody  suspected  that  there  was  a  great 
continent  between  western  Europe  and  eastern  Asia. 
Portuguese  sailors  were  exploring  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 


CATHAJA 


SECTION  OF  BEHAIM'S  GLOBE.1 

and  one  of  them,  in  1486,  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Everywhere  men  were  beginning  to  think 
and  talk  of  geographical  discovery ;  and  the  man  who  was 
to  make  the  greatest  of  modern  discoveries  was  already 
planning  it. 

5.  Christopher  Columbus,  a  sailor  of  Genoa,  in  Italy, 
had  led  from  his  youth  a  seafaring  life,  and  had  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  earth  was  round,  and  that  he 

1  "  It  has  always  been  supposed  that  in  the  well-known  globe  of  Martin 
Behaim  we  get  in  the  main  an  expression  of  the  views  held  by  Toscanelli, 
Columbus,  and  others  of  Behaim's  contemporaries,  who  espoused  the  notion 
of  India  lying  over  against  Europe." — Wins  or  s  History  of  America. 


4  DISCOVERY  AND   EARLY  EXPLORATION 

could  reach  the  Indies,  or  eastern  Asia,  by  sailing-  west 
ward  part  of  the  distance  around  the  world.  He  had  no 
money  to  fit  out  ships,  and  when  he  asked  for  money 
from  Genoa,  Portugal,  England,  and  Spain,  they  refused 
it.  Finally  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  supplied  him  with 
money  enough  to  fit  out  three  small  vessels.  The  largest 
of  them  would  hardly  be  thought  safe  for  a  sea-voyage  at 
present. 

6.  Columbus's  First  Voyage  began  at  Palos,  in  Spain 
(August  3,  1492).  As  far  as  the  Canary  Islands  the  way 
was  well  known.  Thence  he  sailed  out  into  the  west  on 


CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 


a  way  that  no  man  had  ever  sailed  before.  His  men 
became  frightened  and  rebellious  as  the  days  passed  by 
without  the  sight  of  land,  but'  he  induced  them  to  press 
onward.  On  the  morning  of  October  12,  the  sailors  saw 
before  them  one  of  the  Bahamas  (probably  Watling's 


DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  EXPLORATION 


Island),  to  which  Columbus  gave  the  name  of  San  Sal 
vador.  Sailing  slowly  south  and  southeast  for  several 
months,  he  explored  the  West  Indies  to  their  north 
east  corner.  Then  his  little  fleet  spread  its  sails  and 
returned  to  Europe,  carrying  unknown  men  and  spec 
imens  of  plants  as  proofs  that  a  new  world  had  been  dis 
covered. 

7.  Columbus's  Discovery  caused  a  great  excitement  in 
Europe,  as  the  printing-press  scattered  the  news  of  it. 
Spanish  ships,  with  soldiers  and  sailors,  at  once  began  to 
sail  boldly  westward,  now  that  it  was  known  that  there 
was  a  new  world  and  wealth 
across  the  Atlantic.  Their  ad 
ventures,  particularly  in  Mex- 


SCALE   OF   MILES 


600         1000  2000  3000 

COLUMBUS'S  VOYAGE. 


ico  and  Peru,  make  up  a  wonderful  and  interesting  story, 
but  it  does  not  fall  within  the  limits  of  our  own  history. 
Before  many  years  had  passed,  Spain  had  conquered  for 
itself  nearly  all  South  America,  and  that  part  of  North 
America  which  is  now  called  Mexico.  But  the  Spaniards 
paid  little  attention  to  the  territory  which  now  belongs 
to  the  United  States,  preferring  countries  where  gold  and 
silver  were  easily  obtained. 

8.  Four  Voyages  in  all  were  made  by  Columbus,  but 
without    any    further   great   discovery.      He   was    treated 


SPANISH  AND  ENGLISH  DISCOVERIES  7 

unkindly  by  Ferdinand,  king  of  Spain,  and  on  one  occa 
sion  was  sent  home  in  chains  by  one  of  the  king's  officials. 
He  never  touched  on  the  continent  of  North  America, 
though  on  his  third  voyage,  in  1498,  he  landed  on  the 
continent  of  South  America,  near  the  Orinoco  River. 
He  died  without  knowing  that  he  had  discovered  a  new 
world,  but  still  supposing  that  he  had  only  reached  the 
East  Indies.  The  world  which  he  had  discovered  was 
not  named  for  him.  It  was  called  America,  from  Amerigo 
Vespucci  (in  Latin  Americus  Vcspucius),  a  merchant  and 
traveller  of  Florence,  who  was  the  first  to  describe  it  as  a 
separate  continent.  Before  this  happened,  the  native 
inhabitants  were  generally  called  Indians,  from  the  belief 
that  their  country  was  the  Indies ;  and  the  name  has  been 
retained. 

9.  Spanish  Discoveries  soon  made  known  that  part  of 
the  coast  of  North  America  which  lies   on  the    Gulf   of 
Mexico    and    the   southern    Atlantic.       In    1512,    Ponce 
de  Leon   discovered   the   coast   of  what   is   now   eastern 
Florida,  giving  it  the  name  of  Florida   because   he   dis 
covered  it  on  Easter  Sunday,   called  in  Spanish  Pascua 
Florida.      In   1520,   Ayllon   explored   the   coast  of  what 
is  now  South  Carolina;  and  in    1528,  Narvaez  explored 
the    northwest    coast    of    Florida,    along    the     Gulf    of 
Mexico. 

10.  English  Discoveries  were  the   ones  which  had   the 
most   to  do  with  the  country  which   is  now  the    United 
States.     John  Cabot,  a  merchant  of  Venice,  in  Italy,  then 
living  in  Bristol,   England,  and  his  son  Sebastian,  fitted 
out  a  ship,  the  Matthew,  which  in  1497  discovered  land 
in  the  region  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.      They  called 
it  Prima    Vista    ("first   sight").       In    1498,    Sebastian 
Cabot    explored    the    whole    Atlantic    coast    from    Cape 
Breton  to  Albemarle  Sound,  and  claimed  it  for  England. 


8 


DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  EXPLORATION 


No    attempt    to    settle     the 
country  was  made  for  many 
years,  except  an  unsuccessful 
effort  by  Martin  Frobisher  to 
colonize  Labra 
dor;   but    Eng 
lish  sailors  con 
tinued  to  follow 
the  path  of  the 
Cabots  across 
the   northern 
Atlantic,  in 
order    to    share 
in    the     New 
foundland    fish 
eries. 

11.  French 
Discoveries  had 
at  first  very  little 
to  do  with  the 


SCALE   OF   MILES 


0      100    200 


00  600  800 

ATLANTIC  DISCOVERIES. 


future  history  of  the 
United  States.     The 
Newfoundland     fish 
eries      attracted 
French  sailors  across 
the  Atlantic,  and,  in 
1506,      Denys     dis 
covered   the  Gulf  of 
St.    Lawrence.        In 
1524,   Verrazzani,   a 
Florentine    sailor    in 
the  French    service, 
explored  the  Atlantic 
coast,    north    of 
what    is   now 
South  Carolina. 
In  1534,  Cartier 
discovered   the 
great    river  St. 
Lawrence,    and 
this    drew     the 


PORTUGAL  AND  SPAIN  9 

French  off  in  that  direction,  so  that  whatever  discoveries 
they  made  were  made  in  Canada  (§  19). 

12.  Portugal   and   Spain    had    made    an  agreement    in 
1493,  by  which  Portugal  was  not  to  interfere  with  Spain 
in  America,  and  Spain  was  not  to  interfere  with  Portugal 
in  Africa  or  the  East  Indies.      Portugal,  therefore,  took 
no  part  in  American  discovery,  except  that  Cortereal,  a 
Portuguese  sailor,  explored  the  Atlantic  coast,  in    1501, 
from  Maine  to  Newfoundland.      The  maritime  nations  of 
western  Europe  were  then  Spain,  England,  France,  and 
Portugal;  no  other  nation   was  at  all   likely  to  attempt 
settlements   in  America.      Holland   was   then   subject   to 
Spain,  and  attempted  no  settlements  until  it  had  become 
independent    (§  28).       Italy    and     Germany    were    then 
divided   into    many   weak   states ;    and    Sweden   was   not 
strong  enough  to  dispute  the  new  continent  with  the  great 
nations  (§  29). 

13.  The  Interior  of  North  America  was  not  touched  by 
any  of  the   discoveries  above  mentioned.      Some  of  the 
Spanish  governors  of  Mexico  sent  expeditions  northward 
into  what  is  now  New  Mexico  and  California;  but  they 
accomplished  little.    The  only  important  effort  to  explore 
the  interior,  before  the  English  colonies  began  to  grow 
inward  from  the  coast,  was  the  remarkable  expedition  of 
De  Soto. 

14.  De  Soto  was  the   Spanish   governor    of  Cuba.      In 
1539,  he  landed  at  Tampa  Bay,  in  Florida,  with  a  force 
of  about  600  men,  and  marched  through  the  continent  for 
three   years,    vainly  hoping   to  find  and  conquer   a   rich 
Indian  kingdom.     He  went  north  nearly  to  the  Tennessee 
River,  then  southerly  to  where  Mobile  now  stands,  and 
thence  northwesterly  to  the   Mississippi  River,  which  he 
crossed  in  April,  1541,  near  the  present  southern  boundary 
of  Tennessee.     He  marched  westward  for  several  hundred 


10 


DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  EXPLORATION 


0     50    100  200          300  400 

DE  SOTO'S  EXPEDITION. 


miles  across   the    present   State    of  Arkansas,   but  found 
everywhere  only  savages  wandering  in  a  wilderness.      All 

this  time,  it  was 
De  Soto's  courage 
which  had  kept  up 
the  courage  of  the 
men,  but  even  De 
Soto's  courage 
gave  out  at  length, 
and  he  began  to 
move  southward 
on  the  way  home. 
He  died,  worn 
out,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi, 
near  the  mouth  of 
the  Red  River,  and  was  buried  beneath  the  waters  of  the 
great  river  which  he  had  discovered.  His  soldiers  then 
built  boats,  and  sailed  down  the  river  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  so  to  Mexico,  which  the  Spaniards  had  con 
quered  in  1521. 

15.  The  Pacific  Coast  was  explored  in  1543  by  Cabrillo 
and  Ferelo,  two  Spaniards,  as  far  north  as  Oregon.      In 
1579,  Drake,  an  English  navigator,  sailed  along  the  coast 
and   called  it  New   Albion.      In    1592,   Juan  de  Fuca,   a 
Spanish  pilot,  explored  the  coast  as  far  as  the  strait  which 
bears  his  name.     The  territory  remained  under  the  control 
of  Spain,   and  a  few  settlements  were  made  by  Spanish 
missionaries ;  but  little  was  known  about  the  country  until 
it  became  a  part  of  the  United  States  in  1848  (§  544.) 

16,  The   Discoveries    of  Spain,    England,    France,   and 
Portugal  have  been  given  separately  above.      They  may 
be  collected,  as  follows : 


SUMMARY  II 

(S.,  Spanish;  E.,  English;   F.,  French;  P.,  Portuguese.) 
ATLANTIC    COAST. 

1492 — Columbus  (S. ) :  West  Indies §  6 

1497 — Cabots  (E. ) :  Cape  Breton  Island 10 

1498 — Sebastian  Cabot  (E.):   Albemarle  Sound    to  Cape 

Breton  Island 10 

1501 — Cortereal  (P.) :   Maine  to  Newfoundland 12 

1506 — Denys  (F.) :  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 1 1 

151 2 — Ponce  de  Leon  (S. ) :  Florida 9 

1520 — Ayllon  (S. ):  South  Carolina 9 

1524 — Verrazzani  (F.):   South  Carolina  to  Nova  Scotia.  .  .  n 

1534 — Cartier  (F. ) :  River  St.  Lawrence 1 1 

GULF    OF    MEXICO. 

1528 — Narvaez  (S. )  :   Northwestern  Florida 9 

PACIFIC     COAST. 

1543— Cabrillo  (S. ):   Pacific  coast  to  Oregon 15 

1579 — Drake  (E. ) :    Pacific  coast 15 

1592 — De  Fuca  (S. ) :  Pacific  coast  to  British  America..  .  .      15 

INTERIOR. 

1540 — Coronado  (S.) :  New  Mexico 13 

1540 — Alarcon  (S. ) :  Colorado  River 13 

1541 — De  Soto:    Mississippi  River  and  Southern  States.  .  .      13 

TOPICS  FOR   FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  personal  appearance  of  a  typical  Indian. 

2.  The  character  of  Columbus. 

3.  The  reasons  for  the  activity  of  Spain  in  explorations. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — Extracts  from  the  Sagas,  describing  the  supposed 
voyages  to  Vinland,  are  given  in  American  History  Leaflets, 
No.  3;  the  same  series,  No.  i,  gives  the  letter  of  Columbus  to 
Santangel  announcing  his  discovery.  There  are  various  extracts 
from  documents  in  Higginson's  American  Explorers. 

NARRATIVE  WORKS. — The  best  general  account  of  the  events 
included  in  this  chapter  is  Fiske's  Discovery  of  America.  There 


12  DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  EXPLORATION 

are  lives  of  Columbus  by  Irving  and  Winsor.  Winsor's  Nar 
rative  and  Critical  History  of  America  is  especially  detailed  for 
this  period,  and  is  rich  in  geographical  matter.  Bryant  and 
Gay's  Popular  History  of  the  United  States  covers  the  whole 
course  of  American  history  from  the  discovery  of  the  continent. 
Bancroft's  United  States  and  Hildreth's  United  States  begin  with 
1492,  as  does  Doyle's  English  in  America;  but  these  works 
deal  briefly  with  the  period  of  discovery  and  exploration.  On 
the  Spanish  conquest,  Helps' s  Spanish  Conquest  of  America,  and 
H.  H.  Bancroft's  Mexico  and  Central  America,  are  perhaps  the 
most  useful  extended  works.  Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico 
and  Conquest  of  Peru  are  well  known,  but  must  be  corrected 
by  later  works.  A  good  popular  account  is  Higginson's 
American  Explorers.  On  the  aborigines,  see  Bancroft's  Native 
Races. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Longfellow's  Hiawatha;  Lowell's 

Voyage  to  Vinland  and  Columbus  ;  Cooper's  Mercedes  of  Castile  ; 
Lew  Wallace's  Fair  God;  W.  G.  Simms's  Damsel  of  Darien, 

Vasconselos,  and  Lily  and  Totem  ;  Kingsley's  Westward  Ho  / 


CHAPTER    II 

ATTEMPTS   AT    SETTLEMENT 
1540   1607 

17.  The   Discoveries   which   we  have  been   considering 
had  made   the   Atlantic  coast  of  North  America   pretty 
well  known  before  the  year  1530,  but  settlement  did  not 
begin  until  some  seventy  years  later.      Spain  did  not  seem 
inclined  to   settle  this   part   of  the  continent.      Our   two 
oldest  towns,  at  present,  St.  Augustine,  in  Florida  (founded 
in    1565),   and   Santa    Fe,   in   New   Mexico    (founded    in 
1582),  were  originally  Spanish  settlements,  but  were  not 
in  the   territory  of  the   United    States  when  our  national 
history  began.      France  and  England  made  a  number  of 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  found  settlements  before  England 
at  last   succeeded  in    getting  control  of  the  coast.      We 
will  first  consider  the  failures. 

18.  French  Failures  began  in  1540,  when  Cartier,  who 
had  discovered  the  St.  Lawrence   River  in    1534   (§  11), 
made  a  settlement  at  Quebec ;   but  it  was  given  up  after 
the    second   winter.      French   vessels    still   sailed    up   the 
St.  Lawrence  from  time  to  time,  but  for  sixty  years  the 
people    in   France  made    no   further  attempt  to   found    a 
settlement  here.      In  i  562   and  i  564,  French  settlements 
were  attempted  on  the   southern  Atlantic  coast,  but  with 
out    success.       The    first   was    at   Port    Royal ;     but  the 
colonists  became  discouraged,    left  for   home,   and  came 
near  starving  on  the  voyage.      The  second,  near  where 

13 


ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT 


St.  Augustine  now  stands,  was  too  near  the  Spanish  pos 
sessions,  and  the  Spaniards  destroyed  it.  Another  French 
expedition  took  revenge  on  the  Spaniards,  but  made  no 


ATLANTIC  SETTLEMENTS 

SCALE   OF   MILE'S 

0       100      200      300      400       500 
NOTE.— A  line  drawn  through  a 

name  indicates  that  the  attempted 

settlement  iras  a  failure. 


further  attempt  to 
continue  the  settle 
ment. 

19.  Canada  finally 
became  the  seat  of  suc 
cessful  French  settlement 
n  North  America.  In  1605, 
Monts,  with  a  commission 
from  the  king  of  France,  made  a 
successful  settlement  in  Acadia  (the 
French  name  for  Nova  Scotia).1  In 
1608,  Champlain  made  a  settlement 
at  Quebec.  Other  Frenchmen  settled 
along  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  took  possession  of  what  is 
now  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It  remained  a  French 
possession  until  1763  (§  154),  and  the  descendants  of  the 
old  settlers  are  still  known  as  French-Canadians. 

1  De  Monts  also  made  efforts  to  settle  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now 
New  England,  but  failed.  The  French  did  not  begin  permanent  settlements 
within  the  territory  of  the  present  United  States  until  about  1668  (§  137). 


/ 


ATLANTIC  SETTLEMENTS. 


ENGLISH  FAILURES  15 

20.  English  Failures.  —  For  nearly  a  century  after 
Columbus 's  discovery,  the  English  did  little  in  support  of 
the  claims  which  the  Cabots  had  made  for  them,  except 
that  an  English  captain,  Martin  Frobisher,  searching  for 
gold,  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  found  a  settlement 
in  the  cold  and  barren  region  called  Labrador.  After  a 
time,  England  and  Spain  drifted  into  war ;  and  while 
Elizabeth  was  queen  of  England,  English  sailors  like 
Drake (§  15)  were  fighting  the  Spaniards  on  every  sea. 
Most  of  these  were  little  better  than  pirates.  One  brave 
and  pious  gentleman,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  saw  that  the 
American  fisheries  had  more  real  value  than  any  war 
could  have ;  and  he  undertook  to  make  a  settlement  in 
Newfoundland.  His  first  attempt  (1578)  was  a  failure; 
but  he  made  another  attempt,  with  five  ships,  five  years 
afterward.  His  men  were  ungovernable,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  return,  taking  for  himself  the  smallest  and 
weakest  vessel  of  the  five.  A  violent  storm  arose; 
Gilbert  was  besought  to  go  on  board  of  a  larger  vessel ; 
but  he  refused  to  desert  his  men,  saying  manfully,  "We 
are  as  near  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land."  So  they  left  the 
Admiral,  sitting  at  the  stern  of  his  vessel,  "reading  a 
book."  During  the  night,  the  watchers  on  the  other 
ships  suddenly  saw  the  lights  of  his  vessel  go  out,  and 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  disappeared  from  history. 

21.  The  Northwest  Passage  continued  for  a  long  time  to 
be  one  of  the  great  objects  of  the  early  English  and 
Dutch  voyages.  The  Portuguese  claimed  the  sea-route 
from  Europe  to  the  East  Indies,  around  Africa  (§  4). 
The  Spaniards  claimed  the  route  around  South  America, 
which  Magellan  had  discovered  in  1520.  It  was  supposed 
either  that  North  America  was  not  very  broad,  or  that  it 
was  a  collection  of  islands,  like  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
English  hoped  to  find  a  passage  for  themselves  through  it 


i6 


ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT 


1^540 


to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  1609,  Hudson  (§  28)  sailed  up  the 
river  which  bears  his  name  until  he  ran  aground,  hoping 
every  hour  to  sail  out  into  the  Pacific.  In  1850,  Captain 
McClure  at  last  found  a  "northwest  passage"  through 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  the  ice  makes  it  useless  (§  783). 
Long  before  this,  however,  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese 
had  been  compelled  to  give  up  their  asserted  right  to 
prevent  ships  of  other  nations  from  using  the  ocean  route 
around  Cape  Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

22.  Raleigh. — Brave  men  were  plenty  in  England,  and 
Gilbert's    half-brother,   Sir    Walter    Raleigh,    next    took 

up  the  work.  Wonderful 
stories  are  told  of  Raleigh, 
of  his  wit,  his  learning, 
his  never-failing  courtesy, 
which  made  friends  for 
him  everywhere ;  of  the 
liking  which  Elizabeth 
had  for  him  ;  of  the  dislike 
which  her  successor,  King 
James  I.,  felt  for  him;  of 
the  manliness  which  he 
showed  through  thirteen 
years  of  imprisonment, 
and  at  his  final  execution. 
The  common  story  is  that 
he  introduced  into  England,  from  the  American  Indians, 
the  practice  of  smoking  tobacco ;  and  that  one  of  his 
servants,  seeing  him  smoking  and  thinking  him  on  fire, 
threw  a  pitcher  of  beer  on  him  to  put  out  the  fire ;  but 
it  is  quite  certain  that  tobacco  was  used  in  England 
before  Raleigh's  time.  He  has,  however,  a  better  claim 
to  our  remembrance.  He  was  the  father  of  English 
colonization  in  America.  He  himself  was  never  in 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH. 


1607]  RALEIGH'S   COLONIES  i? 

North  America ;  but  he  made  every  effort  to  make  settle 
ments  there ;  he  talked  and  wrote  of  the  importance  of 
such  settlements ;  and  he  was  the  man  who  did  most  to 
set  Englishmen  thinking  of  it,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for 
final  colonization. 

23.  Raleigh's   Colonies. — The    colonies  which   Raleigh 
sent  out  landed  on  the  coast  of  the  present  State  of  North 
Carolina.      Two  of  his  vessels  found  a  place  for  a  colony 
on  Roanoke  Island   (1584).      Raleigh  named  the  whole 
coast  Virginia,   in  honor   of  Queen  Elizabeth,   who  was 
unmarried   and   was   fond   of  being   called   the    ' '  Virgin 
Queen, ' '  and  the  name  is  still  given  to  a  part  of  it,  the 
present  State  of  Virginia.      A  colony  was  sent   out  the 
next  year,   but  careful  preparation  had  not  been  made, 
and   the   colony   was   starved   out   in   a   year.      Another 
colony  was  sent  out  under  White  (1587).      It  began  well. 
White's  granddaughter,  Virginia  Dare,  the  first  child  of 
English   parents   born   within   the   present   limits   of  the 
United    States,    was    so     named    because    the    colonists 
believed  that  the  great  colony  of  Virginia  had  now  been 
begun.      No   one   knows   what   calamity   happened;    but 
when  the  colony  was  searched  for  three  years  afterward, 
it  had  disappeared,  and  no  trace  of  the   hundred  or  more 
persons  who  perished  was  ever  found.      This  failure  ex 
hausted  Raleigh's  money  for  the  time. 

24.  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  in    1602,  found  a  new  route 
across  the  Atlantic,  by  the  Azores   Islands,  which  saved 
i  500  miles  in  distance.      He  made  a   settlement  in  what 
is  now  called   Buzzard's  Bay,  in   Massachusetts;   but  his 
men  lost  courage,   and  he  returned  with  a  ship-load  of 
sassafras.       At    this    time,    more    than    a    century    after 
Columbus's  discovery,  there  was   not  an  English  settler 
in  all  North  America;   but  English  trading  and  fishing 
vessels  were    often  seen  along  the   coast,   and  their  ac- 


i8  ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT 

counts  of  the  country  kept  alive  the  English  desire  for 
American  settlements. 

25,  English  Settlement  took  a  new  form  in  1606,  under 
King  James  I.      Two  great  companies  were  formed,  one 
at   London,   called   the  London  Company,   the  other  at 
Plymouth,    called     the    Plymouth     Company.       To     the 
London  Company  the  king  granted  the  coast  of  North 
America  from  latitude   34°  to  latitude  41°;  that  is,  from 
about  Cape  Fear  to  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River.      To 
the  Plymouth  Company  he  gave  the  coast  from  latitude 
38°  to  45°;  that  is,  from  the  Rappahannock  River  to  the 
eastern  point  of  Maine.      The  coast  between  the  Rappa 
hannock  and  the  Hudson  was  thus  granted  to  both  com 
panies;  but  neither  was  to  fix  a  colony  within   100  miles 
of  any  colony  already  planted  by  the  other.      There  was 
no  western  boundary  to  the  grants,  which  were  supposed 
to  extend  across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

26,  Successful  Settlement  began  with  the  formation  of  the 
companies,  the  first  successful  colony  being  established  at 
Jamestown  in  Virginia,  in  1607  (§  76).     The  first  attempts 
had  failed  because  of  natural  difficulties.      A  few  people, 
placed  in  a  wilderness,  with   3000  miles  of  stormy  ocean 
between  them  and  help  of  any  kind,  and  without  protec 
tion   of  any  sort    from   hostile   Indians,   soon  died   from 
accident  or  disease,  or  were  forced  to  return  to  England. 
But  the  new   companies   were  richer,    and  were  able  to 
send  out  colonies  large  enough  and  well  enough  equipped 
to    protect   themselves   from    the   beginning;    and   when 
this  had  been  done,  many  of  the  difficulties  disappeared. 
Every    year    a    greater     number    of    persons    came    to 
America,  to  get  land  for  nothing  and-  to  escape  poverty 
or  persecution  at  home ;  and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
coast  was  dotted  with  little  settlements,  and  a  few  persons 
began  to  press  inland. 


COLONIZATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


27.  The  Colonization  of  the  United  States  also  begins 
with   the  formation  of   these  companies.      The  territory 
granted    to    the    companies   was    gradually   cut   up    into 
separate  colonies,  and  new  colonies  were  formed  to  the 
southward.      Thus   there   came   to   be,   in   time,  ^thirteen 
English  colonies,  Virginia  and  Massachusetts   being  the 
remnants  of  the  first  grants  to  the  two  companies,  after 
the  other  colonies  had  been  cut  out  of  them.      In  making 
these  first  grants,  the  king  had  been  careful  to  avoid  the 
territories  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  south,  and  the  French 
on   the   north ;    and    it   thus   happened   that  the   English 
colonies  in  North  America  were   planted   near  together, 
and  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States.      The 
advantages  of  this  were  that  it  placed  an  enterprising  and 
ambitious  people  in  the  best  part  of  the  continent,  where 
the  climate  was  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold ;  and  that  it 
gave  them  the   opportunity  to   unite  in  future  and  grow 
into  a  great  nation. 

28.  Holland  had  rebelled  against  Spain,  about  the  time 
of  the  first   English   failures   (§  20),   and   had   become   a 
strong     naval     power.        In 

1609,  Henry  Hudson,  an 
Englishman  in  the  service 
of  Holland,  discovered  the 
Hudson  River,  and  explored 
the  coast  as  far  as  Chesa 
peake  Bay  more  closely  than 
previous  voyagers  had  done. 
Dutch  traders  at  once  sent 
vessels  to  Manhattan  Island 
(now  New  York  City),  to 
trade  with  the  Indians ;  and 
in  162 1 ,  Holland  granted  the 
territory  from  Delaware  Bay 
to  the  Connecticut  River  to  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 


HENRY  HUDSON. 


20  ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT 

pany.  This  company  established  the  city  of  New  Amster 
dam  (now  New  York)  in  1623,  and  called  the  whole 
territory  New  Netherland.1  For  the  next  forty  years, 
this  continued  to  be  a  Dutch  colony,  set  in  between 
English  colonies  to  the  north  and  to  the  south  of  it.  It 
was  then  conquered  by  the  English  (§  109). 

29.  Sweden,  without  any  claims  by  discovery,  fixed  a 
colony  in   what  is   now  the   State  of  Delaware,  in    1638. 
Its    leader   was    Peter    Minuit,    who   had    been    a   Dutch 
governor  of  New  Netherland,  but  had   gone  over  to  the 
service  of  Sweden.      The  chief  town  of  this  colony  was 
Christina,  near  the  present  city  of  Wilmington.     In  1655, 
a  Dutch  force  from  New  Amsterdam  compelled  the  Swedes 
to    acknowledge    themselves    under    the    government    of 
Holland  ;    and  the  colony  finally  passed  under   English 
rule,  with  the  rest  of  New  Netherland   (§  109).      It  was 
later  transferred  to  Penn  (§  12 1). 

30.  Summary. — We    have    thus    traced    the    steps    by 
which  England  established  her  colonies  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America.      Spain  had  chosen  the  territory 
to  the  south,  and  France  the  territory  to  the  north ;  while 
the   territory  between   them   fell   to   England.      At   first, 
England  had   Holland  and  Sweden  as  rivals ;    but  these 
were  not  strong  enough  to  resist  her ;  and  the  whole  At 
lantic  coast,  from  Florida  to  Nova  Scotia,  finally  became 
English.      The  dates  of  the  more  important  steps  in  the 
settlement  are  as  follows: 

(Sp.,  Spanish;  E.,  English;  F.,  French;  D.,  Dutch;  Sw.,  Swedish.) 
CANADA. 

1540— Cartier  (F.) :  Quebec  (failure) §  18 

1576 — Frobisher  (E.) :  Labrador  (failure) 20 

1  The  price  paid  to  the  Indians  by  the  Dutch  for  Manhattan  Island  was 
60  guilders  (about  $24). 


SUMMARY  21 

1583 — Gilbert  (E.):  Newfoundland  (failure) 20 

1605 — De  Monts  (F. ):   Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia  (success).      19 

1608 — Champlain  (F. ) :  Quebec  (success) 19 

(Here  begins  the  French  colonization  of  Canada,  §  136.) 

THE    UNITED    STATES. 

1562 — South  Carolina  (F. ):   Port  Royal  (failure) 18 

1564 — Florida  (F. ):  Near  St.  Augustine  (failure) 18 

1565 — Florida  (Sp.) :  St.  Augustine  (success) 17 

1582 — New  Mexico  (Sp. ) :    Santa  Fe  (success) 17 

1585— North  Carolina  (E.):  Roanoke  Island  (failure).  ...  23 

1587 — North  Carolina  (E.):  Roanoke  Island  (failure).  ...  23 

1602 — Massachusetts  (E.) :   Buzzard's  Bay  (failure) 24 

1607 — Virginia  (E. ) :  Jamestown  (success) 26,  31 

(Here  begins  the  English  colonization  of  the  United  States.) 

1609 — New  York  (D. ) :   Hudson's  discovery 28 

1623 — New  York  (D.) :  Dutch  settlement  (became  English 

in  1664) 28 

1638 — Delaware  (Sw. ):   Swedish  settlement  (became  Eng 
lish  in  1664) 29 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  St.  Lawrence  valley. 

2.  Raleigh's    connection    with     exploring    and    colonizing 
schemes. 

3. .  The  life  of  Cartier. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  general  authorities  are  the  same 
as  for  Chapter  I.,  with  the  addition,  for  English  attempts,  of 
Palfrey's  History  of  New  England  and  Doyle's  English  in 
America,  vol.  i.,  chaps.  4  and  5;  and,  for  French  attempts,  of 
Parkman's  Pioneers  of  France  and  La  Salle,  and  Winsor's  Cartier 
to  Frontenac  and  Mississippi  Basin.  The  works  of  Winsor  are 
very  detailed.  There  are  brief  lives  of  Raleigh  by  Gosse  and 
Creighton. 


CHAPTER    III 

GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS   OF   ENGLISH    COLONIZA 
TION 

1607-1750 

31.  The  London  Company  (§25)  sent  out  Captain  Chris 
topher  Newport,  with  one  hundred  and  twenty  emigrants, 
to  settle  at  Roanoke  Island.    A  storm  drove  him  out  of  his 
course  and  into  Chesapeake  Bay ;  he  discovered  the  James 
River,  which  he  named  in  honor  of  James  I.  ;  and  about 
fifty  miles  from  its  mouth,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the 
river,  he  planted  the  settlement  of  Jamestown,  in   May, 
1607.      This  was  the   first  successful  English  settlement 
within   the   present   limits  of  the  United  States,  and  was 
the  beginning  of  the  colony  of  Virginia  (§  76). l 

32.  The  Southern  Colonies  were  in  the  end  five  in  num 
ber:   Virginia,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
and  Georgia.      These  were  formed  out  of  the  grant  to  the 
London    Company    by   the    king   through   the    following 
changes:   (i)  in   1632,  the  new  colony  of  Maryland  was 
formed  out  of  the   northeastern   part  of  Virginia   (§85); 
(2)   in    1665,   Charles  II.   took   off  the   southern  part   of 
Virginia,  the  present  State  of  North  Carolina,  added  to 
it  the  present  territory  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and 
called   the   whole   Carolina;    (3)    in    1729,   Carolina  was 
divided  into  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  (§92); 
(4)  in   1732,  the  new  colony  of  Georgia  was  formed  out 
of  South  Carolina  (§  103).      The  London  Company  could 

1  Jamestown  was  destroyed  in  1676,  during  Bacon's  rebellion  (§  82). 

22 


EUROPEAN  PROVINCES 

less 
«__  — 


NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES  23 

make  no  objection  to  these  changes,  for  in  1624  the  king 
had  taken  away  its  charter  and  put  an  end  to  the  com 
pany,  which,  as  he  claimed,  was  not  using  its  charter 
properly  and  faithfully.  Florida  was  not  an  English 
colony  until  1763  (§  I  54) ;  nor  a  part  of  the  United  States 
until  1819  (§414).  The  names  of  the  first  four  English 
colonies  on  the  southern  coast  were  all  royal :  Virginia, 
from  Elizabeth,  the  virgin  queen;  Maryland,  from  Hen 
rietta  Maria,  Charles  I.  's  queen;  Carolina,  from  Charles 
II.  of  England;  and  Georgia,  from  George  II.  of  Eng 
land. 

33,  The  New  England  Colonies. — The  Plymouth  Com 
pany  (§25)  attempted  to  make  a  settlement  in  1607, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  River,  in  Maine ;  but  it 
was  a  failure,  and  the  company  made  no  more  settlements 
on  its  own  account.  In  1620,  a  new  company  was  formed, 
known  as  the  "Council  for  New  England."  To  this 
company  the  king  gave  the  territory  between  north  lati 
tude  40°  and  48°;  that  is,  from  about  Philadelphia  to  the 
northern  point  of  Maine.  Almost  the  only  work  done  by 
this  company  was  to  grant  lands  to  various  other  colonies ; 
and  in  1635  ^  a^so  gave  back  its  powers  to  the  king.1 
The  New  England  Colonies,  formed  from  the  original 
Plymouth  Company's  grant,  were  at  first  seven :  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Connecticut,  New  Haven,  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  and  New  Hampshire.  Plymouth  was 
afterward  united  with  Massachusetts  Bay,  New  Haven 
with  Connecticut,  and  Providence  with  Rhode  Island. 
There  were  thus  finally  four  New  England  colonies : 
Massachusetts  Bay  (§  48),  New  Hampshire  (§  55),  Con 
necticut  (§  57),  and  Rhode  Island  (§  63). 2 

JThe  name  New  England  was  given  to  this  coast  in  1614  by  Captain 
John  Smith  (§77). 

2  Maine  was  a  part  of  Massachusetts  until  1820.  Vermont  was  claimed 
by  New  Hampshire  and  New  York  (§65). 


24    GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ENGLISH  COLONIZATION 

34.  The  Middle  Colonies,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn 
sylvania,  and  Delaware,  were  for  the  most  part  conquered 
soil,  taken  from  the  Dutch   (§  28).      Neither  of  the  two 
great  companies  attempted  to  colonize    this  part  of  the 
coast,  and  it  did  not  come  into  English  possession  until 
1664. 

35.  *The  Governments  of  the  English  colonies  were  not 
all  alike,  and  some  had  different  forms  of  government  at 
different  times.      Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con 
necticut  had  royal  charters,  written  documents  giving  the 
colonists  the  right  to  elect  their  own  officers  and  manage 
their   own    affairs.      Virginia   was   also   a    charter   colony 
until   1624.      Pennsylvania   (including   Delaware),   Mary 
land,  and  Carolina  were  given  by  the  king  to  proprietors 
or  owners,    who   formed   governments  in  them,   and  ap 
pointed  the  governors  and  some  other  officers.      But  even 
in  these  proprietary  colonies  the  people  largely  controlled 
their  political  affairs.      New  Hampshire,  New  York,  and 
New  Jersey  were  royal  colonies,  ruled  through  governors 
appointed  by  the  king.      Virginia  became  a  royal  colony 
in  1624,  and  Carolina  in  1719.      The  charter  of  Georgia, 
granted  in  1732  to  trustees,  was  surrendered  to  the  king 
in  1752,  and  the  colony  became  a  royal  province. 

36.  The  Colonies  in  General  were  at  first  little  interfered 
with  by  the  king,  who  considered  them  more  often  as  an 
annoyance   than  as    an  honor  or    a  benefit.       Thus    the 
colonies,  even  those  which  had  no  charters,  obtained  the 
power  to  elect  assemblies,1  which   made  the  laws  for  the 
colonies.      The  governors  sent  out  by  the  king  had  the 
power  to  forbid  the  passage  of  any  law  which  seemed  to 
them  wrong  or  unwise ;   but  the  governors  were  far  from 
England,  and  for  a  long  time  interfered  very  little.    Thus 

1  The  first  representative  assembly  in  America  met  iu  Virginia  in  1619 
(§  76). 


GOVERNMENT  OF   THE  NEW  COUNTRY  25 

it  came  to  pass  that  the  colonies  really  governed  them 
selves  almost  from  the  beginning.  But  all  of  them 
acknowledged  the  same  king,  and  were  parts  of  the 
British  Empire.  Their  inhabitants  were  Englishmen,  who 
moved,  when  they  wished,  from  one  colony  to  another, 
without  any  notion  that  they  were  going  to  a  foreign 
country.  English  colonization  really  gave  the  king  of 
England  a  new  country  to  govern. 

37.  The  New  Country  was  not  like  the  old  one,  how 
ever,  though  both  had  the  same  king,  laws,  and  language, 
and  many  of  the  same  customs.      England  had  a  class  of 
nobles  who  helped  to  make  the  laws  simply  because  they 
had  been  born  in  particular  families,  and  without  being 
elected;  but  there  was  no  such  class  in  the  colonies.      In 
England,  only  a  very  few  men  had  the  power  to  vote  for 
members  of  the  Parliament  which  made  English  laws ;  in 
the  colonies,  almost  all  men  had  the  power  to  vote  for 
members  of  the  assemblies  which  made  their  laws.      In 
England,  there  were  a  few  rich  men  and  many  poor  men, 
a   few   educated   men    and   many   ignorant    men ;    in  the 
colonies  there  were  few  who  were  either  very  poor  or  very 
rich,  and  few  who  could  not  at  least  read  and  write. 

38.  These  Differences  made  it  much  more  difficult  for 
the  king  to  govern  both  countries  well,  for  the  laws  which 
suited  one  of  them  were  quite  unsuited  to  the  other.      But 
the  kings  of  England  seem  not  to  have  understood  this. 
England  was  their  own  country,  and  they  were  familiar 
with   it;    America   was    far   away,   and   they   knew   little 
about  it.      It  was  therefore  difficult  for  the  king,  when  it 
was  necessary  for  him  to  interfere  in  the  government  of 
America,  to  know  what  was  best  for  that  country;  and 
there    were   many   cases   of  bad   government  in   all    the 
colonies,   because  the  king  was  not  able  to  judge   their 
needs  wisely.      As  the  colonies  grew  richer,  these  inter- 


26    GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ENGLISH  COLONIZATION 

ferences    became    more    troublesome,   until  in    1776    the 
colonies  broke  away  from  England  altogether  (§  205). 

39.  Negro  Slavery  in  the  colonies  was  one  of  the  worst 
of  these  cases  of  bad  judgment.      The  first  mention  of  it 
is    in    Virginia,    in    1619,    when    a    Dutch     man-of-war 
exchanged  some   negro   slaves  for  provisions.      Negroes 
were  soon  held  as  slaves  in  all  the  colonies,  though  they 
increased  most  rapidly  in  the  warmer  southern  colonies. 
Labor  is  the  most  important  thing  in  a  state.     But,  where 
laborers  are  generally  known  as  slaves,  no  free  man  likes 
to   labor,  because  there   labor  is  thought  to  degrade  the 
laborer  to  the  level  of  a  slave.    A  wiser  government  would 
therefore  have  forbidden  slavery  in  the  colonies :   but  the 
king  of  England  not  only  did  not  forbid  it,  but  became  an 
active  partner  in  the  slave-trade,  and  refused  to  allow  the 
colonies  to  forbid  it.      Thus  the  southern  colonies  came  to 
believe    that    slavery    and    slave    labor    were    absolutely 
necessary  to  them.     But  at  that  time  there  was  no  general 
feeling,  as  there  is  now,  that  slavery  not  only  had  a  bad 
effect  upon  the  industry  of  a  country,  but  was  also  morally 
wrong. 

40.  European   Affairs. — While    English    settlement    in 
America   was    going    on,    between    the    years    1600    and 
1 690,  great  events  were  taking  place  in  Europe ;  and  it  is 
necessary  to  bear  them  in  mind  while  studying  the  next 
period,  for  they  had  a  great  influence  on  the  history  of  the 
English  colonies  in  America.      In  England  the  powers  of 
government  were  divided  between  the  king,  the  House  of 
Lords  (hereditary  nobles,  §  37),  and  the  House  of  Com 
mons  (elected  by  a  part  of  the  people).      The  two  Houses 
together  were  called  the  Parliament ;   and  this  body  had 
little  by  little  gained  for  itself  the  power  of  taxing  the 
people.      When  Queen  Elizabeth  died  (1603),  and  a  new 
king,  James  I.,  came  from  Scotland,  Parliament  became 


EUROPEAN  AFFAIRS  27 

bolder  in  declaring  its  power.  James,  and  still  more  his 
son,  Charles  L,  resisted  the  claim,  and  even  attempted  at 
times  to  govern  and  lay  taxes  without  calling  the  Parlia 
ment  together.  But  the  people  refused  to  pay  such  taxes, 
and  the  king  was  repeatedly  compelled  to  call  the  Parlia 
ment  together  and  ask  for  money.  Then  the  Parliament 
refused  to  lay  taxes  unless  the  king  would  give  up  other 
powers  which  were  considered  objectionable. 

41.  The  Commonwealth  and  the  Protectorate. — In  1642, 
the  quarrel  broke  out  into  open  war.    The  Parliament  was 
successful,   defeated  and  captured   the   king,   Charles  L, 
and  in  1 649  beheaded  him  as  a  traitor  and  tyrant.     Oliver 
Cromwell,   the  leader   of  the   Parliamentary  army,   soon 
afterward  became  ruler  of  England,  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Protector,  and  held  power  until  his  death  in  1658.      This 
period  is  usually  called,  in  English  history,  the  period  of 
the   Commonwealth   and   the   Protectorate.      The   king's 
friends  were  often  called  Cavaliers,  and  the  supporters  of 
the    Commonwealth  Puritans  or  Roundheads,   the  latter 
name  being  given  because  they  cut  their  hair  short,  while 
the  Cavaliers  wore  long,  curling  wigs. 

42.  The  Restoration. — In  1660,  the  people,  tired  of  the 
Protectorate    and    the    rule    of    the    army,    called    back 
Charles  I.  's  son,  who  had  been  living  in  exile,  and  made 
him  king,  with  the  title  of  Charles  II.      In  1685,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  who  had  been  Duke  of  York, 
but    was    now    called    James    II.       He    endeavored,    as 
Charles  I.  had  done,  to  rule  by  his  own  will.      In   1688, 
his   subjects   rebelled,    drove   him   and   his   son   away   to 
France,    and     called    in    his    son-in-law    and     daughter, 
William  of  Orange  and  Mary,  as  king  and  queen.      This 
event  is  commonly  called  the  English  Revolution  of  1688. 

43.  In  France,  events  took  an  exactly  opposite  course. 
Louis  XIII.  in  1614  got  rid  of  the  body  which  had  made 


28    GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ENGLISH  COLONIZATION 

laws,  and  the  French  kings  ruled  by  their  own  will  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1789  (§305). 
In  1685,  a  religious  persecution  was  begun  in  France,  and 
drove  many  of  the  Protestants,  commonly  called  Hugue 
nots,  out  of  that  kingdom.  Many  of  these  came  to 
America. 

44.  The  American  Colonies  were  very  much  neglected 
under  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  ;  they  enjoyed  great  free 
dom  from  interference  under  the  Commonwealth;  and 
they  were  subjected  to  great  annoyances  and  interferences 
under  Charles  II.,  and  still  more  under  James  II.  (§  70). 
But  all  through  the  early  part  of  the  century,  the  troubles 
in  England  were  driving  great  numbers  of  people  across 
the  Atlantic,  and  increasing  the  population  of  the  colonies 
very  rapidly.  The  population  grew  from  nothing  in  1600 
to  about  200,000  in  1700. 

The  following  are  the  leading  European  events  referred  to: 

1603-1625  :   Reign  of  James  I. 

1625-1649:    Reign  of  Charles  I.  (son  of  James  I.). 

1640:  The  fifth  Parliament  of  the  reign  meets. 

1642:  War  breaks  out.      Battle  of  Edgehill. 

1645:  Battle  of  Naseby.      The  king  captured. 

1649:  The  king  beheaded. 

1649-1660:  The  Commonwealth. 

1653:  Cromwell  is  made  Lord  Protector. 

1658:  Death  of  Cromwell. 

1660:  Restoration. 

1660-1685  :   Reign  of  Charles  II.  (son  of  Charles  I.). 

1685-1689:  Reign  of  James  II.  (son  of  Charles  I.). 

1689-1702:  Reign  of  William  and  Mary. 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  early  colonial  policy  of  England. 

2.  The  meaning  of  "  the  rights  of  Englishmen,"  as  applied 
to  the  American  colonists. 

3.  The  government  of  a  proprietary  colony  (e.g.,  Maryland). 

4.  A  comparison  between  a  southern  colony  (e.g.,  Virginia) 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  29 

and  a  northern  colony  (e.g.,  New  York)  in  the  matter  of  the 
condition  and  treatment  of  slaves. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — For  references  on  the  several  colonies 
see  under  Chapters  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.,  post.  The  course  of 
events  in  England  may  be  conveniently  followed  in  Gardiner's 
Student's  History  of  England.  Seeley's  Expansion  of  England, 
Lectures  i.-vn.,  is  a  brilliant  discussion  of  English  colonial 
experience. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    NEW   ENGLAND  COLONIES   ; 
1620-1750 

(i)  MassacJnisctts  Bay  Colony. 

45.  The  Plymouth  Colony  occupied  the  irregular  south 
eastern   portion    of  the   present   State   of  Massachusetts. 
The  region  was  settled  by  a  company  of  "Separatists," 
as  they  were  called,  who  separated  themselves  from  the 
worship   of  the  church  established  by  law   in    England. 
They  had  been  persecuted  in  England  under  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.  ;    and  many  of  them  fled  to   Holland,   where 
they    found    peace.      After   a   time,    a    number    of  them 
who  had  settled  in  Leyden  set  sail  for  New  Amsterdam 
(New  York),  in  order  to  settle  there  in  the  possessions 
of  the  Dutch.      Storms  drove  their  ship,  the  Mayflower, 
from  her  course,  and  they  landed,  about  one  hundred  in 
number,  in  the  present    State  of  Massachusetts,   at  Ply 
mouth.       The   date   of   the   landing   was    December    2 1 , 
1620. x 

46.  The  Pilgrims,  as  the   colonists   called   themselves, 
suffered    greatly    during    the    winter,    and    half   of   their 
number  died.      They  had  been  too  poor  to  provide  many 
of  the  comforts  necessary  for  a  new  settlement ;   they  did 
not  find  a  fertile  soil ;   and  there  seemed   little  chance  of 

1  The  rock  on  which  they  are  said  to  have  landed  is  still  seen,  and  is 
called  Plymouth  Rock,  or  Forefathers'  Rock.  Captain  John  Smith  (§  33, 
note)  had  already  named  the  spot  Plymouth. 

30 


THE  PILGRIMS  31 

getting  rich  by  trading.  Other  settlers  followed,  how 
ever,  and  the  little  colony  held  its  ground.  It  had  no 
charter,  but  governed  itself  at  first  under  a  covenant,  or 
agreement,  made  by  the  Pilgrims  in  the  cabin  of  the 
Mayflower.  This  covenant  has  generally  been  held  to 


THE  MAYFLOWER. 

mark  the  beginning  of  that  tendency  toward  democracy 
which  finally  prevailed  in  all  the  English  colonies.  It 
was  in  Virginia  that  the  first  Assembly  was  held ;  but  the 
Assembly  was  convened  by  the  governor  under  the 
authority  of  the  Virginia  Company,  and  the  control  of  it 
was  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  wealthier  planters ;  while 
the  Pilgrims  acted  on  their  own  responsibility,  and  had 
regard  to  rich  and  poor  alike.  The  history  of  Plymouth, 
until  its  union  with  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  in  1691, 
was  in  the  main  uneventful.  The  colony  was  never  a 
large  one ;  but  it  opened  the  way  for  the  emigration  to 
New  England  of  a  great  number  of  other  persons  who 
were  opposed  to  the  Church  of  England  and  the  king,  and 
did  much  to  give  New  England  a  character  of  its  own. 


32  THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES 

47.  The  Leaders  of  the  Pilgrims  were  John  Robinson, 
Miles    Standish,    John    Carver,    and    William     Bradford. 
Robinson  was    their    minister  in    Holland,   but    did    not 
accompany    them    to    America.       Standish    was    an    old 
soldier,   and  the   colony's  military  leader.      He  was   "a 
man  of  a  very  small  stature,  yet  of  a  very  hot  and  angry 
temper,"   and  was   much  dreaded  by  the    Indians.      On 
one  occasion,  he  stabbed  a  hostile  chief  in  the  midst  of  his 
tribe.      Carver  was  the  first  governor.      He  died  during 
the  first  winter.      Bradford  was  chosen  in  his  place,  and 
was   re-elected   yearly    for    about    thirty  years,   until  his 
death.      The  only  years  in  which  he  was   not  re-elected 
were  those  in  which,   "  by  importunity,  he  got  off." 

48.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  comprised  the  north 
ern  part  of  the  present  State  of  Massachusetts.1     It  was 
founded  by  Puritans,   who  had  not   altogether  separated 
from   the   Church  of  England,   but  disliked   some   of  its 
ceremonies.      They  sided  with  the  Parliament  against  the 
king    and    the    Cavaliers,    and    were    persecuted    as    the 
Separatists    had    been.      In    1628,    a   company   of  them 
bought  their  territory  from  the  Council  of  Plymouth,  and 
sent   out   a   colony   which   settled   at  Salem.      The   next 
year,  Charles  I.  gave  them  a  charter,  and  they  sent  out 
more  colonists,   who  settled  at  Salem  and  Charlestown. 
In  1630,  a  highly  important  step  was  taken.      The  com 
pany    itself   moved    over   to    America,    with  its    officers, 
charter,  and  all  its  powers ;  and  thus  the  Puritans  obtained 
a  colony  of  their  own  in  America,  with  little  real  depend 
ence  upon  England. 

49.  The   Population    of   the   colony  increased    rapidly. 
In    1630,    John   Winthrop    and   1500   others  came    from 

1  In  the  charters  the  name  is  variously  spelled  Massachusetts,  Matta- 
chusetts.  and  Massathusetts.  It  is  an  Indian  word,  and  is  said  to  mean 
"blue  hills." 


MASSACHUSETTS   LEADERS  33 

England  and  settled  Boston,  Cambridge,  Lynn,  and  other 
towns.  For  a  few  years  the  new  settlers  suffered  severely 
from  cold,  hunger,  and  other  hardships,  but  not  so  much 
as  the  Plymouth  settlers  had  suffered  ten  years  before. 
The  Massachusetts  Bay  settlers  were  richer,  and  had 


GOVERNOR  JOHN  WTNTHROP. 

brought  more  supplies.  There  were  riore  Puritans  than 
Separatists  in  England,  and  so  there  were  more  emigrants 
to  Massachusetts  Bay  than  to  the  rest  of  New  England. 
The  men  brought  money  and  laboring  power;  the  people 
worked  hard;  and  Massachusetts  Bay  soon  became  one 
of  the  most  prosperous  of  the  colonies. 

50.  The  Leaders  of  this  colony  were  John  Endicott, 
John  Winthrop,  Sir  Henry  Vane,  John  Cotton,  Thomas 
Hooker,  Samuel  Stone,  and  a  great  number  of  other 
ministers.  Endicott  was  a  rigid  Puritan,  who  at  one  time 
cut  the  cross  out  of  the  British  flag  in  the  colony,  and 


34  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES 

compelled  the  women  to  wear  veils  at  church,  and  the 
men  to  cut  their  hair  short.  Winthrop  was  an  English 
lawyer,  a  highly  educated  man,  and  more  gentle  than 
Endicott  in  his  religious  feeling.  Vane  was  rich,  able, 
and  accomplished,  and  was  elected  governor  when  only 
twenty-four  years  old.  He  returned  to  England,  helped 
to  overthrow  the  king,  opposed  Cromwell,  and  was 
beheaded  after  the  restoration.  The  last  three  named 
above  were  able  ministers;  and  the  colonists  said  that 
God  had  given  them  "  Cotton  for  their  clothing,  Hooker 
for  their  fishing,  and  Stone  for  their  building." 

51.  Religious  Feeling  marked  most  of  the  New  England 
colonists.     They  had  fled  from  religious  persecution  in  the 
old  world,  and  in  the  new  world  they  made  the  building 
of  churches,   the  founding  of  religious  schools,   and  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  a  great  part  of  their  work.      In 
Massachusetts  Bay,  particularly,  they  were  determined  to 
found  a  religious  state.     Their  ministers  were  their  leading 
men,  and  for  many  years  no  one  could  vote  unless  he  was 
a  member 'of  the  church.      They  dealt  harshly  with  men 
of  other   religious   beliefs  who  came  to  the    colony  and 
annoyed  them  by  disputing  with    the   Puritan  ministers. 
Roger   Williams   held    objectionable    views    on    religious 
liberty  and  on  the  relation  of  the  colony- to  the  crown. 
He  was  ordered  to  leave  the  colony;   and,  fleeing  from 
Massachusetts,  he  went  into  the  wilderness  and  founded 
the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  (§  62).      Afterwards,  in  1637, 
Mrs.  Anne   Hutchinson  and  her  followers  were  banished 
for  teaching  ne\v  religious  doctrines.      She  also  went  to 
Rhode  Island,  and  thence  to  New  Netherland,  where  she 
was  killed  in  a  night  attack  by  the  Indians. 

52.  The  Quakers  gave  the  New  England  colonists  most 
trouble,  for  they  insisted  on  freedom  of  worship,  and  dis 
obeyed   the    laws   which   forbade    preaching  by    any  but 


THE  SALEM   WITCHCRAFT 


35 


Puritan  ministers.  They  were  often  guilty  of  extravagant 
conduct.  They  persisted  in  entering  Puritan  meetings 
and  arguing  with  the  ministers,  and  were  punished  in 
various  ways.  In  1656,  a  law  was  passed  that  any 


SITE  OF  BOSTON  IN  1620. 

Quaker  who  returned  to  the  colony  after  banishment 
should  be  put  to  death.  The  king  stopped  the  execution 
of  the  law  after  the  restoration ;  but  it  shows  the  spirit  of 
the  times. 

53.  The  Salem  Witchcraft. — Before  this  spirit  of  religious 
persecution  died  away,  the  colony  was  shaken  by  the  de 
lusion  known  as  the  Salem  witchcraft.  Most  people  at  the 
time,  and  the  Puritans  as  strongly  as  others,  believed  that 
there  were  witches,  who  had  received  power  from  the 
devil  to  hurt  or  kill  men  and  cattle.  Both  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut  had  made  laws  against  witchcraft,  and  had 
hanged  a  number  of  persons  for  being  witches.  In  1692, 
the  whole  town  of  Salem  became  crazed  with  the  belief 
that  witches  were  at  work  there.  Two  silly  or  wicked 
little  girls  declared  that  different  persons  had  taken  the 
form  of  black  cats  or  black  dogs,  and  had  bitten,  pinched, 
and  choked  them.  The  people  believed  them,  and 
even  the  great  minister  of  the  colony,  Cotton  Mather, 
supported  them.  The  supposed  witches  were  punished 
with  religious  fury;  and  wicked  people  seized  the  oppor 
tunity  to  charge  their  enemies  with  being  witches.  Before 
the  terror  died  away,  about  twenty  innocent  people, 


THE   NEH/  ENGLAND   COLONIES 


mostly  old  women  and  Indians,  had  been  put  to  death. 
Finally,  the  magistrates  and  people  came  to  their  senses ; 
and  punishments  for  witchcraft  were  stopped. 

54.  The  Colonies  United — The  New  England  colonists 
sided  with  the  Parliament  against  the  king;   and  during 


25  5(1  100 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY  COLONY. 


the  Commonwealth  period  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  was  al 
lowed  to  take  possession  of  all  the  rest 
of  New  England  to  the  north ;  and  this 
new  territory  was  left  to  the  colony  for  some 
years  after  the  restoration.  In  1684,  the  king's 
judges  declared  the  Massachusetts  charter  at  an  end ; 
and  James  II.  attempted  to  make  the  whole  of  New 
England  one.  royal  colony  (§  70),  when  he  was  driven 
from  the  throne  in  1689.  The  new  sovereigns,  William 
and  Mary,  instead  of  restoring  the  old  charter,  granted  a 
new  charter  in  1691.  It  united  the  colonies  of  Plymouth 
and  Massachusetts  Bay,  the  province  of  Maine,  and  the 
territory  of  Nova  Scotia,  into  one  colony,  by  the  name  of 
Massachusetts  Bay ;  and  made  New  Hampshire  a  separate 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


37 


colony  (§  56).  But  the  right  to  elect  the  governor  was 
taken  from  the  people,  and  all  religions  except  the  Roman 
Catholic  were  to  be  permitted.  The  colony  remained 
under  this  charter  until  the  colonies  finally  rebelled  against 
Great  Britain  (§  188). 

(2)  New  Hampshire. 

55.  New  Hampshire  was  John  Mason's  share  of  a  tract 
of  land  granted  to  him  and  Sir    Ferdinando   Gorges,   in 
1622,   by  the    Council  of   Plymouth   (§  33).      The  grant 
covered  the  territory  between  the  Merrimac  and  Kennebec 
rivers.      Small  settlements  were  made  at  Portsmouth  and 
Dover,  in  1623;  and  in  1629,  the  proprietors  divided  their 
grant.      Mason  named  his  share   New    Hampshire,    from 
his  own  county  of  Hampshire,  in  England. 

56.  The   Colony    was   for    years    hardly    more    than    a 
few  fishing  villages.      In  1641,  it 

joined  Massachusetts;  but  the 
king  separated  them  in  1679, 
and  made  New  Hampshire  a  royal 
colony.  In  1688,  the  colony 
again  joined  Massachusetts;  and 
in  1691,  the  king  again  separated 
them  (§  54).  New  Hampshire 
then  remained  a  royal  colony  until 
the  colonies  rebelled  against  Great 
Britain  (§  188).  It  never  was  a 
large  colony;  its  interior  settle 
ments  were  farming  townships ; 
and  its  history  was  uneventful. 


SCALE   OF   MILES. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE  COLONY. 


(3)    Connecticut. 

57.  The   Connecticut   Colony   consisted  of  the   territory 
now  within  the   State  of  Connecticut,  with  the   exception 


38  THE  NEH/  ENGLAND   COLONIES 

of  the  few  townships,  on  the  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound, 
which  formed  the  New  Haven  colony  (§  60).  It  is  said 
to  have  been  granted  in  1630  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick  by 
the  Council  of  Plymouth  (§33).  In  1631,  Warwick 
transferred  it  to  Lord  Say,  Lord  Brooke,  and  others.  In 
1635,  they  made  a  settlement,  which  they  called  Say- 
brook,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River,  but  made 
no  further  attempts  to  colonize.  Their  claims  were  after 
ward  purchased  by  the  Connecticut  settlers. 

58.  Settlement  had  already  been  begun  by  immigrants 
from  Massachusetts,  without  permission  of  the  proprietors. 
Their  principal  leader  was  Thomas  Hooker  (§50).  They 
travelled  on  foot  through  the  Massachusetts  wilderness  to 
the  Connecticut  River,  driving  their  cattle  before  them, 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0        10       20  -10  60 

CONNECTICUT  COLONY. 


and  sometimes  living  chiefly  on  milk.  They  settled  the 
towns  of  Wethersfield  in  1634,  Windsor  in  1635,  and 
Hartford  in  1636.  In  1639,  they  formed  the  first  written 
constitution  in  America,  and  took  the  name  of  the  Con 
necticut  colony.  Saybrook  joined  them ;  new  towns  were 
settled ;  and  they  retained  their  separate  government 
throughout  the  Commonwealth  period. 


CONNECTICUT  AND  NEl^  HAVEN  39 

59.  The  Early  History  of  the  Connecticut  colony  was 
not  very  eventful.      The  principal  Indian  difficulties  were 
with  the  Pequots,  a  powerful  tribe  of  eastern  Connecticut. 
In   1637,  the  settlers  made  war  on  the  tribe,  surrounded 
the  Indians  in  their  fort  near  Groton,  and  killed  many  of 
them.      Another  defeat  near  Fairfield  put  an  end  to  the 
tribe:    its  members  joined  other  tribes,  or  were  sold  as 
slaves.      The  Dutch  in  New  Netherland  claimed  the  terri 
tory  up  to  the  Connecticut  River;   but  this  dispute  was 
settled  in  1650  by  a  treaty  at  Hartford,  fixing  the  boun 
dary  between   Connecticut   and   New    Netherland    (New 
York)  very  nearly  as  at  present. 

60.  The  New  Haven  Colony  was  settled  in   1638,  by  a 
company  of  English  immigrants,  under  Rev.  John  Daven 
port  and  Theophilus  Eaton,  who  bought  lands  from  the 
Indians.      Other  settlers  followed  them  and  formed  new 
towns  near  by,  on  the  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound.      In 
1639,   these  towns   united  under   the   name   of  the  New 
Haven  Colony.     There  were  thus  two  colonies  within  the 
present  State  of  Connecticut,   neither   of  them  having  a 
royal  charter;    and  each  tried  to  gain  to  itself  the  new 
towns  as  they  were  formed.      These,  however,  generally 
preferred    to    go  into  the  Connecticut    colony,   for    New 
Haven,    like    Massachusetts    Bay,    allowed    no    one    but 
members  of  the  church  to  vote  or  hold  office  (§  51). 

61.  The  Colonies  United. — In  1660,  when  the  Common 
wealth  came  to  an  end  in  England,  and  Charles  II.  was 
recalled,    the    Connecticut    colony,   the    stronger    of  the 
two,    set    about    to    obtain    a    charter.       The    governor, 
Winthrop,  was  at  once  sent  to  England  for  that  purpose. 
In   1662,  he  obtained  a  charter  covering  the  territory  of 
both    colonies.       It    allowed    the    people    to    elect    their 
governor  as  well   as  their   assembly,    and  practically  to 
govern    themselves.      It  suited  them  so  well   that  it  re- 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES 


[1620 


mained  in  force  after  the  Revolution,  and  until  1818. 
New  Haven  unwillingly  accepted  the  charter,  and  in 
1665  the  two  colonies  were  united  under  the  name  of 
the  Colony  of  Connecticut.  In  1687,  Andros  (§  70) 
appeared  at  Hartford  and  demanded  the  charter.  While 
the  argument  was  going  on  in  the  evening,  the  lights, 
so  the  story  goes,  were  suddenly  blown  out;  and  before 
they  could  be  relighted,  the  charter  had  been  taken  out 


CHARTER  OAK. 

and  hidden  near  by,  in  a  hollow  oak-tree.  When 
William  and  Mary  came  to  the  throne  in  1689,  the 
charter  was  brought  out  again,  and  the  government  went 
on  as  before  until  the  Revolution  (§  204).  The  tree  in 
which  the  charter  is  said  to  have  been  hidden,  called  the 
Charter  Oak,  stood  and  was  well  cared  for  until  it  was 
blown  down  in  a  storm  in  1856.  The  early  division  into 
two  colonies  was  long  marked  by  the  fact  that  Connecti 
cut  had  two  capitals,  Hartford  and  New  Haven.  Since 
1873  Hartford  has  been  the  sole  capital. 


1750]  RHODE  ISLAND  4* 

(4)  Rhode  Island. 

62.  Roger   Williams,    after    he    had   been   driven   from 
Massachusetts  (§  51),  took  refuge  among  the  Indians  at 
the   head   of  Narragansett    Bay.      In    1636,    their    chief, 
Canonicus,  sold  him  a  large  tract  of  land,  which  Williams 
called    Providence,    in    remembrance    of  the   manner    in 
which  he  felt  that  God  had  guided  him  thither.      Others 
followed  him,  and  settled  on  the  large  island  in  the  bay, 
called  Rhode  Island.      Portsmouth,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  island,  was  settled  in  1638,  and  Newport  in  1639. 
These  two  colonies,  or  "plantations,"  were  separate  for 
several  years,  having  no  charter,   and  governing  them 
selves.      In  1643,  a  third  and  smaller  colony  was  founded 
at  Warwick,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  bay. 

63.  A  Charter  was  obtained  by  Williams  in  1643  from 
Parliament,  which  gave  liberal  rights  of  government,  but 
did   not  confirm    the   title   of  the   colonists  to  the  land. 
In   1663,   a  new  charter  was   obtained  from  Charles  II. 
The   different   settlements   were   now   gathered   into   one 
colony,  under  the  name  of  Rhode   Island  and  Providence 
Plantations.      The  people  were  to  elect  their  own  gover 
nor,  assembly,  and  other  officers,  and  govern  themselves. 
The  charter  suited  the  people  so  well  that  they  kept  it  in 
force  after  the  Revolution,  and  until  1842  (§  5I3).1 

64.  The  Early  History  of  Rhode  Island  was  marked  by 
frequent  controversies,  fortunately  bloodless,  as  the  laws 
were   tolerant.      All    religious   denominations   were   per 
mitted,  and  the  colony  became  a  place  of  refuge  for  those 
who  were  persecuted  elsewhere.    There  were  few  troubles 
with   the   Indians,  but   often  vigorous  disputes  with   the 
neighboring   colonies.      Plymouth,   on  the  east,   claimed 

1  For  the  attempt  of  Andros  to  destroy  the  charter,  see  §  70. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES 


[1620 


the  territory  up  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  bay.  Con 
necticut,  on  the  west,  claimed  the  territory  up  to  the 
western  shore  of  the  bay.  Massachusetts  claimed  the 
northern  part  of  the  colony.  These  claims  would  have 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


RHODE  ISLAND  COLONY. 


left  only  the  islands  in  the  bay  to  the  little  colony. 
Rhode  Island  resisted  stubbornly,  and  succeeded,  in  1741 
and  1/52,  in  fixing  its  boundaries  as  at  present.1 

(5)    Vermont. 

65.  Vermont  was  part  of  the  grant  to  the  Duke  of  York 
(see  Map,  p.  78),  like  western  Connecticut  and  Massa 
chusetts.  The  grant  was  given  up  as  to  the  two  latter 
colonies;  and  so,  about  1750,  New  Hampshire  claimed 
Vermont  and  sold  it  to  settlers.  For  this  reason  Vermont 
was  long  known  as  the  ' '  New  Hampshire  Grants. ' '  New 
York  urged  a  claim  to  it,  and  attempted  to  make  the 
people  pay  for  their  land  again.  The  Green  Mountain 

1  The  legal  name  is  still  "The  State  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations  "  ;  and  the  State  retained  its  two  capitals.  Providence  and  New 
port,  the  legislature  meeting  in  them  alternately,  until  November,  1900, 
when  Providence  was  made  the  sole  capital. 


1 750]  NEW  ENGLAND   CONFEDERATION  43 

Boys,  as  the  settlers  called  themselves,  treated  the  New 
York  officers  very  roughly,  and  formed  a  government  of 
their  own.  At  first  they  called  it  New  Connecticut,  and 
then  Vermont,  a  French  word  meaning  Green  Mountains. 
They  kept  up  this  separate  government  throughout  the 
Revolution.  Vermont  had  little  to  do  with  the  other 
colonies  during  the  colonial  period,  and  remained  practi 
cally  independent,  save  for  its  controversy  with  New 
Hampshire  and  New  York,  throughout  the  Revolutionary 
War. 

(6)  New  England  in  General, 

66.*  New  England  Confederation — In  1643,  the  colonies 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New 
Haven  formed  a  confederacy,  under  the  name  of  ' '  The 
United  Colonies  of  New  England."  By  the  articles  of 
union  which  were  drawn  up  and  agreed  to,  each  colony 
was  to  be  represented  by  two  commissioners,  who  were 
empowered  to  meet  and  decide  on  questions  of  peace  and 
war,  and  on  a  few  other  matters  of  common  interest.  So 
far  as  its  own  affairs  were  concerned,  each  colony  con 
tinued  to  govern  itself.  No  colony  was  to  engage  in  war, 
unless  attacked,  without  the  consent  of  the  others,  and 
the  expenses  and  profits  of  the  wrar  were  to  be  shared  by 
the  members  of  the  confederation.  Rhode  Island,  whose 
territory  was  claimed  by  the  other  colonies,  was  refused 
admission.  The  practical  importance  of  the  New  England 
Confederation  came  to  an  end  in  1662,  when  Connecticut 
and  New  Haven  were  united  (§  61);  but  it  had  showed 
the  colonies  the  advantage  of  joint  action,  and  was  a  step 
in  the  direction  of  more  permanent  union. 

67.  The  Navigation  Acts. — At  first,  the  colonists  every 
where  were  busied  only  in  agriculture,  hunting,  and  fish 
ing.  As  they  grew  richer,  they  turned  to  manufactures, 


44  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES  [1620 

ship-building,  and  commerce,  and  their  assemblies  offered 
to  grant  money  to  persons  who  would  engage  in  such 
pursuits.  This  was  not  at  all  pleasant  to  English 
merchants,  who  wished  to  keep  the  trade  of  the  colonies 
in  their  own  hands.  In  1651,  Parliament  passed  the  first 
of  what  were  called  the  Navigation  Acts.  These  laws 
forbade  the  colonies  to  trade  with  any  other  country  than 
England,  or  to  receive  foreign  ships  into  their  ports. 
They  were  particularly  aimed  at  New  England,  whose 
people  had  gone  eagerly  into  commerce ;  but  they  were 
not  well  enforced  for  many  years  (see  also  §  So).1  The 
revenue  officers  were  careless,  or  took  bribes  to  allow 
vessels  to  trade  with  foreign  countries;  and  thus  most 
of  the  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut 
merchants  were  compelled  to  be  smugglers,  and  to  engage 
in  trade  that  was  forbidden  by  law.  About  a  hundred 
years  after  the  passage  of  these  laws,  the  attempt  was  at 
last  made  to  enforce  them  in  earnest;  and  this,  as  will  be 
seen,  helped  to  bring  about  the  Revolution  (§  169). 

68.  The  Indians  soon  saw  very  plainly  that  the  white 
strangers  were  driving  them  away  from  the  coast  and  out 
of  their  ancient  possessions.  One  of  them,  Philip,  chief 
of  the  Wampanoags,  a  Rhode  Island  tribe,  was  bold 
enough  to  strike  a  blow  for  his  race.  He  travelled 
through  New  England  until  he  had  united  the  Indians 
from  Maine  to  the  Hudson  River  in  a  league  against  the 
English.  The  war  broke  out  in  June,  1675.  The  Indians 
attacked  Swansea,  Massachusetts,  and  killed  a  number  of 
persons;  and,  almost  at  the  same  time,  similar  attacks 
were  made  on  the  villages  all  along  the  frontier.  The 
towns  of  western  Massachusetts  suffered  most  severely. 

1  As  a  part  of  the  same  system,  various  acts  of  Parliament  forbade  the 
transportation  of  manufactures,  such  as  wool,  iron,  paper,  hats,  and  leather, 
from  colony  to  colony.  These  laws  were  also  evaded. 


1750]  KING  PHILIP'S   WAR  45 

69.  King   Philip's   War    lasted    for   nearly  two    years. 
About    thirteen    towns    were    destroyed;     many     others 
were  attacked;  about  six  hundred  whites  were  killed  in 
battle ;  and  an  unknown  number  perished  by  massacre  or 
starvation.      The  most  severe  battle,  called  "the  swamp 
fight,"  took  place  in  December,   1675.      It  was  fought  by 
Massachusetts,    Plymouth,   and  Connecticut  troops,    who 
surrounded  and  captured  a  Narragansett  fort,  in  a  swamp 
near     Kingston,     Rhode     Island,     and    slaughtered     its 
defenders.      The  colonies  were  too  strong  for  the  Indians. 
Philip  was  driven  out  of  one  place  after  another;  and  in 
August,   1676,  he  was  finally  hunted  down  to  his  principal 
residence  at  Mount  Hope,   near  Bristol,    Rhode    Island. 
Here    he    was    surrounded    by   a    force   under    Benjamin 
Church,   a    Plymouth    Indian-fighter.      In    attempting  to 
break  through  and  escape,    Philip  was  shot   and   killed. 
His  men  were  killed  or  sold  into  slavery,  and  the  power 
of  the  New  England  Indians  was  broken  forever. 

70.  The  Andros  Government. — It  has  already  been  said 
that  the  colonies  were  subjected  to  great  annoyances  under 
James  II.      This  was  particularly  the   case,  with  the  New 
England  colonies.      The  king  was  vexed    to  know  that 
they  were  governing  themselves  under  their  charters,  and 
determined    to    show    that    he    was    their    master.      The 
English  courts  had  already  decided  that  the  Massachusetts 
charter  was  void   (§  54) ;  and  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who 
had  lately  been  governor  of  New  York,   was  appointed 
governor  of  New  England,  with  orders  from  the  king  to 
demand    the    charters    of   the    colonies.      He   landed    at 
Boston  in  December,  1686,  and  Massachusetts  submitted 
to  him  for  the  time.      He  then  went,  in  1687,  to  Hartford 
and  Newport.      The  charter  of  Connecticut  disappeared 
(§61),   and  the  charter  of  Rhode   Island   could   not   be 
found;    but  he    declared  both  governments   at    an    end. 


46  THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES  [1620 

The  colonists  hated  him,  for  he  governed  harshly  and 
tyrannically.  But  his  service  pleased  the  king,  who  added 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  to  his  government  the  next 
year.  Early  in  1689,  when  rumors  of  the  English  revo 
lution  reached  New  England,  he  was  seized  at  Boston  by 
the  people,  and  sent  back  to  England.  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island  were  allowed  to  resume  their  old  charters, 
but  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  was  not  restored,  although 
the  colony  received  a  new  charter  in  1691  (§  54).  The 
new  government  in  England  sent  Andros  back  again  to 
America  as  governor  of  Virginia. 

71.  Early  French  Wars. — When  James  II.  and  his  son 
were  driven  from  England,  the  king  of  France  received 
them  and  gave  them  help.      For  this  and  other  reasons, 
France  and  England  were  frequently  at  war  for  the  next 
seventy  years,  and   the  French   and   English  colonies   in 
America  took  part  in  the  wars.      The  first  three  of  these 
were  called,  from  the  names  of  the  English  rulers,  King 
William's  War  (1689-1697),    Queen  Anne's  War  (1702- 
1713),  and  King  George's  War  (1744-1748).      In  Amer 
ica    they   were    waged    mainly    by    New    England    and 
New   York  against  Canada;    and  the   southern   colonies 
took  little  part  in  them.     But  the  treaties  which  ended  all 
these  wars  agreed  that  each  party  should  give  back  its 
conquests,  except  that,  at  the  end  of  Queen  Anne's  War, 
England  kept   Port  Royal   and  Nova  Scotia.      This  was 
the  only  gain  to  the  colonies  from  any  of  these  wars. 

72.  The  French  Strongholds  were  four:    Montreal   and 
Quebec  in  Canada;   Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis),  a  fine 
harbor   in    Nova  Scotia    (or  Acadia) ;    and  Louisburg,   a 
strong   fortress   on   the   southeast  coast   of  Cape   Breton 
Island.       The    New-Englanders   were    most    anxious    to 
capture  Port  Royal  and  Louisburg,  which  were  especially 
dangerous  to  their  fishing-vessels  on  the  Newfoundland 


75°] 


FRENCH  AND  INDIAN   WARS 


47 


banks.  In  1690,  Massachusetts  sent  an  expedition  under 
Sir  William  Phips,  which  captured  Port  Royal;  but  the 
place  was  given  up  at  the  end  of  the  war.  In  1710,  Port 
Royal  was  captured  again,  after  one  failure,  and  this  time 
it  was  kept.  In  1745,  the  New  England  colonies  united 


0      100    200  400  600 

EARLY  FRENCH  WARS. 


and  captured  Louisburg,  with  the  assistance  of  a  British 
fleet;  but  this  was  given  back  at  the  end  of  the  war. 
Several  land  expeditions  were  made  against  Montreal  and 
Quebec,  but  they  were  entirely  unsuccessful  (§  151). 

73.  The  Indians  in  western  New  York  and  Canada  took 
the  side  of  the  French,  for  the  French  were  always  more 
successful  than  the  English  in  gaining  the  liking  of  the 
Indians.  Thus  the  whole  frontier  was  kept  in  alarm. 
The  secret  and  savage  fashion  in  which  the  Indians,  often 
under  the  lead  of  French  officers,  attacked  the  border 
towns,  and  killed  the  people  or  carried  them  as  captives 
to  Canada,  embittered  the  colonists  against  the  French  as 
well  as  the  Indians,  and  united  them  in  the  final  French 
and  Indian  war  (§  H3).1 

1The  "Five  Nations"  of  Indians,  afterward  called  the   "Six  Nations" 
(§3),  joined  the  English  at  first,  but  usually  refused  to  take  part  in  the 


48  THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES  [1620 

74.  Growth  of  New  England. — No  one  can  do  anything 
more  than  guess  at  the  population  of  the  colonies  before 
the  first  census  of  the  United  States  was  taken  in    1790 
(§312).      We  can  only  know  that,  after  the  colonies  were 
fairly  settled,   the  population    of  most   of  them   doubled 
about    once    in   thirty  years.      In    1715,   British    officials 
estimated  the  population  of  this  section  at  i6i,65O.1     In 
1750,    New  England  contained  probably  about  430,000 
persons. 

75.  The  People  had  been  made  a  thrifty  and  hardy  race 
by  constant  struggles  against  a  severe  climate.     They  had 
not  only  agriculture,  but  ships,  commerce,  and  fisheries, 
and  had  begun  to  introduce  manufactures.     None  of  them 
were   very  rich,   and   few  were   very   poor.      They  were 
accustomed  to  govern  themselves  in  their  towns  and  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  their  charters.      They  were 
therefore  always  ready  to  resist  any  attempt  to  take  away 
the   smallest  of  their  privileges ;    and  the   royal   officials 
found   no  part  of  America  so  hard  to   manage   as   New 
England.      Education  was  very  general.      The  first  two 
of  the  present  colleges  in  America  were  founded  in  New 
England:   Harvard,   at  Cambridge,   in  Massachusetts,   in 
1636;  and  Yale,  at  New  Haven,  in  Connecticut,  in  1700. 
Both   negroes    and    Indians  were   held   as  slaves  in  this 
section ;  but  the  climate  was  not  favorable  to  slavery,  and 
the  system  showed  no  signs  of  increase. 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Town  government  in  New  England. 

2.  The  New  England  Confederation. 

1  The  population  in  1715  was  supposed  to  be  divided  as  follows:  Massa 
chusetts,  96,000;  New  Hampshire,  9,650;  Connecticut,  17,000;  Rhode 
Island,  9.000.  In  1750:  Massachusetts,  210,000;  New  Hampshire,  50,000; 
Rhode  Island,  40,000;  Connecticut,  135,000. 


1750]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  49 

3.  The  Dutch  in  Connecticut. 

4.  Life  in  a  typical  New  England  town  in  the  seventeenth 
century. 

5.  History  of  the  first  Massachusetts  charter. 

6.  Treatment  of  Roger  Williams  by  Massachusetts. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — The  principal  charters  and  grants  are  in  Mac- 
Donald's  Select  Charters,  Nos.  4,  7,  8,  10,  n,  13,  15,  18,  24, 
27,  and  42;  the  same  volume  contains  the  Mayflower  Compact 
(No.  5),  the  Fundamental  Orders  of  Connecticut  (No.  14),  the 
Fundamental  Articles  of  New  Haven  (No.  16),  the  scheme  of 
government  for  New  Haven  (No.  20),  the  Massachusetts  Body 
of  Liberties  (No.  17),  the  Articles  of  the  New  England  Con 
federation  (No.  19),  and  extracts  from  the  Navigation  Acts 
(Nos.  22,  23,  25,  28,  34,  and  43).  Hart's  American  History 
told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  i.,  chaps.  14-21,  gives  well-chosen 
extracts,  from  contemporary  sources,  illustrating  social  and 
economic  conditions  in  the  several  colonies. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  best  brief  work  is  Fiske's  Be 
ginnings  of  New  England.  Lodge's  Short  History  of  the  English 
Colonies  in  America,  chaps.  18-22,  is  valuable,  but  more  detailed. 
Eggleston's  Beginners  of  a  Nation,  bk.  n.,  chaps.  1-4,  bk.  in., 
chaps.  2  and  3,  is  brilliantly  written  and  of  marked  worth.  Of 
the  more  elaborate  special  histories,  Palfrey's  New  England  is 
still  the  best.  For  a  scholarly  English  view,  Doyle's  English  in 
America  should  be  consulted.  The  best  account  of  the  New 
England  Confederation  is  in  Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic. 
State  histories  are  of  unequal  merit:  Barry's  Massachusetts, 
Belknap's  New  Hampshire,  Greene's  Rhode  Island,  Johnston's 
Connecticut,  Williamson's  Maine,  and  Heaton's  Vermont  are 
perhaps  the  best.  Bradford's  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation 
and  Winthrop's  History  of  New  England  are  contemporary 
narratives.  Hutchinson's  History  of  Massachusetts  is  of  prime 
value.  Important  special  works  are:  Life  and  Letters  of  John 
Winthrop;  Ellis's  Puritan  Age  and  Rule;  Hosmer's  Young 
Sir  Harry  Vane;  Upham's  Salem  Witchcraft;  Wendell's  Cotton 
Mather. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Alice  M.  Earle's  Customs  and 
Fashions  in  Old  New  England,  Social  Life  in  Old  New  England, 
and  Child-life  in  Colonial  Days;  Lowell's  New  England  Two 


50  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES        [1620-1750 

Centuries  Ago;  Jane  G.  Austin's  Betty  Alden,  A  Nameless  Noble 
man,  Standish  of  Standish,  Dr.  Le  Baron  and  His  Daughters,  and 
David  Alden's  Daughters  (Plymouth);  Longfellow's  Miles 
Standish,  John  Endicott,  and  Giles  Corey;  Hawthorne's  Twice- 
Told  Tales  and  Scarlet  Letter ;  Whitlier's  Mabel  Martin;  Motley's 
Merry  Mount;  Holland's  Bay-Path;  E.  L.  Bynner's  Penelopes 
Suitors;  F.  J.  Stimson's  King  Noanett. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE   SOUTHERN    COLONIES 
1607-1750 

(i)    Virginia. 

76.  The  First  Settlement  of  Virginia  was  at  Jamestown, 
in  1607  (§  31).      For  several  years,  the  colony  had  a  hard 
struggle    for    life.      Most    of  the    colonists   at   first   were 
broken-down  gentlemen,  who  neither  wished  to  work  nor 
knew  how  to  work;  and  the  people  had  quite  decided, 
several  times,  to  return  to  England,  when  new  supplies  of 
men  and  food  changed  their  purpose  and  saved  the  colony. 
In  about  ten  years  the  colony  became  established  firmly 
enouerh    to    take    care    of   itself.      It    obtained    from    the 

o 

London  company  the  power  to  make  its  own  laws  in  an 
assembly,  or  legislature,  elected  for  that  purpose;  and  in 
1619,  the  first  assembly  ever  elected  in  America  met  at 
Jamestown.  In  the  same  year  we  first  hear  of  negro 
slavery  in  America. 

77.  Captain  John  Smith  was  the  most  prominent  man  in 
the  first  two  years  of  the  colony's  history.       He  seems   to 
have  been   a  bold  and  shrewd  man,  who  did  the  colony 
good  service  in  controlling  the    Indians  and  the  colonists, 
and    in    exploring   the   surrounding  country.      He   had  a 
vivid  imagination,   and  was  a  wonderful  story-teller;  but 
many  of  his  stories   are  very  doubtful.      Smith  was   not 
liked  by  those   colonists  whom  he  forced   to  work.      In 

51 


52  THE  SOUTHERN   COLONIES  [1607 

1609,  he  went  back  to  England,  but  afterward  returned 
to  America,  and  explored  and  named  the  coast  of  New 
England. 

78.  The   Colony  soon  became    prosperous  through  the 
cultivation  of  tobacco.      Tobacco  was  the  money  of  the_ 
colony,  everything  being  paid  for  in  so  many  pounds  of 


CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH. 

tobacco.  One  pound  was  then  worth  from  two  to  twelve 
cents  of  our  money,  but  could  buy  five  or  six  times  as 
much  as  at  the  present  time.  The  settlers  built  their  own 
vessels,  and  carried  on  commerce  with  England.  The 
population  grew  steadily.  In  1715,  it  was  believed  to  be 
about  the  same  as  that  of  Massachusetts,  95,000;  and  in 
1750,  it  was  estimated  at  285,000.  When  the  Revolution 


i  750]  VIRGINIA  53 

(§  183)   broke  out,  Virginia  was  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  important  of  the  thirteen  colonies. 

79.  The  Territory  of  Virginia  at  first  covered  nearly  all 
of  the  present  Southern   States,  north  of  South  Carolina, 
but    was    gradually    reduced    by    the    formation    of   new 
colonies.     Thus,   when   the    Revolution    began,   Virginia 
covered  the  present  States  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  and 
Kentucky.      But  Virginia  claimed  that  its  northern  boun 
dary  ran  northwest,  instead  of  west,  so  as  to  take  in  the 
western    part    of   Pennsylvania,    and    the    present    great 
northwestern   States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin  (§  270). 

80.  Virginia  became  a    royal    colony  in     1624   (§  32). 
The  king  did  not  take  away  the  privileges  already  enjoyed 
by  the   colonists,   and  they   continued   to   govern   them 
selves.      During  the  Commonwealth  period   (§  41),   they 
sided  with  the  king,  until   the  Parliament  threatened  to 
send  over  a  force  to  conquer  them.     The  Navigation  Acts 
(§  67)   were  also  intended  to  punish    them.      They  sub 
mitted    unwillingly,    and    rejoiced    at   the    restoration    of 
Charles   II.1      But  the  new  king  showed  them  no  favor. 
In    1673,  he  actually  presented  the  colony  to  one  of  his 
court  favorites,  although  he  took  the  gift  back  again  nine 
years  afterward. 

81.  Indian  Wars  were  not  numerous  in  Virginia.      In 
the  first,  in  1622,  about  350  settlers  were  killed,  and  there 
was  some  danger  of  the  destruction  of  the  colony.     In  the 
second,  in  1644,  about  300  settlers  were  killed.      In  both 
of  these  wars  the  Indians  were  conquered,  and  after  the 
second  they  were  no  more   troublesome.      In    1675,   the 
year  of  King  Philip's  War  (§  68),  the  Maryland   Indians 

1  At  the  restoration,  Virginia  called  herself  the  new  [king's  "  ancient 
dominion,"  because  of  her  steady  loyalty  ;  and  the  State  is  still  often  called 
"  The  Old  Dominion." 


54  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  [1607 

became  troublesome  to  the  Virginia  settlers,  and  this  was 
one  of  the  reasons  for  the  rebellion  which  followed. 

82.  Bacon's  Rebellion.  —Governor  Berkeley  and  a  few 
of  his  friends  had  got  the  powers  of  government  into  their 
own   hands.      They  believed  that  the  Maryland  Indians 
had  been  unjustly  treated,  and  refused  to  make  war  on 
them.       In    1676,    a    young    planter,    named    Nathaniel 
Bacon,   raised  troops  among  the  settlers,  compelled  the 
governor  to  conquer  the  Indians,  and  finally  drove  him 
out   of  Jamestown.       In    the    struggle,    Jamestown    was 
burned,  and  it  was  never  rebuilt;  Williamsburgh  became 
the  capital.      Bacon  died  suddenly,  and  his  rebellion  fell 
to  pieces.      The  enraged  governor  hanged  twenty-two  of 
the  principal  rebels,  and  for  a  time  governed  the  colony 
very  harshly,  but  was  soon  recalled  to  England,  where 
he  shortly  afterwards  died.      "The   old  fool,"    said  the 
king,   ' '  has  taken  away  more  lives  in  that  naked  country 
than  I  did  for  the  murder  of  my  father. ' ' 

83.  The   Virginian   Colonists  generally  lived   on   large 
plantations,  for  they  had   plenty  of  fertile   land  at  com 
mand,  and  were  not  afraid  of  Indians.      There  were  thus 
very  few  towns  in  the  colony.      The  people  were  not  so 
nearly  equal  in  wealth  as  in  New  England :   there  were 
more  very  rich  men,  and  more  very  poor  ones;  and  the 
rich  men  were  generally  able  to  get  most  of  the  powers 
of  government  to  themselves.      Most  of  them  were  mem 
bers   of  the   Church    of  England,    and   their    assemblies 
passed  severe  laws  against  the  entrance  of  men  of  other 
religious  beliefs  to  the  colony.      In  this  respect  Virginia 
was  like  most  of  the  other  colonies  (§51).      It  was  not 
until  after  the  Revolution  that  this  spirit  of  religious  per 
secution  altogether  died  away. 

84.  Education. — The  Virginians  were  so  scattered  that 
schools  were  very  few,  and  education  was  confined  to  the 


MARYLAND 


55 


rich,  who  could  send  their  sons  to  England.      Governor 
Berkeley  said,   "I  thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools, 
nor  printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have  them  these 
hundred    years."        In    1693, 
William    and    Mary    College, 
the     second    college    in    the 
United    States,    was    founded 
at  Williamsburgh.      It  suffered 
much  from  the  ravages  of  war, 
both  in    the    Revolution    and 
in   the    Civil    War,    but   after 
having    been    closed    several 
times,  it  has  of  late  been  re 
organized  and  is  now  in  opera 
tion. 


SCALE  OF  MILES 

50  100  150 

VIRGINIA  COLONY. 


(2)  Maryland. 

85.  Roman    Catholics   were 
persecuted    by    the     laws    of 

England,  as  the  Puritans  and  Quakers  were  persecuted, 
and  the  colony  of  Maryland  was  founded  as  a  Catholic 
place  of  refuge.  One  of  the  leading  English  Catholics 
was  Sir  George  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore.  He  at  first 
tried  to  found  a  Catholic  colony  in  Newfoundland,  but  the 
unfavorable  climate  defeated  it.  He  then  fixed  on  that 
part  of  Virginia  east  of  the  Potomac  River.  Virginia  had 
already  explored  it,  and  was  preparing  to  settle  it ;  but 
Charles  I.  granted  it  to  Baltimore  without  asking  Vir 
ginia's  consent.  Baltimore  died,  but  the  patent  was  given 
to  his  son,  Cecil  Calvert,  in  1632.  The  name  of  Mary 
land  was  given  by  the  king  in  honor  of  the  queen, 
Henrietta  Maria. 

86.  Settlement  was  begun  in  1634,  by  Leonard  Calvert, 
a  brother  of  the  new  Lord  Baltimore.      He  settled,  with 


THE  SOUTHERN   COLONIES 


[1607 


200  immigrants,  at  a  little  Indian  village  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Potomac,  and  called  the  place  St.  Mary's.  The 
town  of  Annapolis  was  founded  about  1683,  and  Baltimore 
in  1729.  In  1635,  the  proprietor  called  a  legislative 
assembly;  and  from  that  time  the  people  governed  them 
selves,  paying  the  proprietor  some  small  taxes.  The 


100  150 

MARYLAND. 


proprietor,  in  1691,  was  a  supporter  of  James  II.  ;  and  the 
new  king,  William,  deprived  him  of  his  colony,  and 
appointed  the  governors  himself.  ln^  1716,  the  pro 
prietor's  rights  were  restored  to  him.  The  family  of 
Calvert  died  out  in  1771,  and  the  people  of  Maryland 
became  proprietors  in  1776. 

87.  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  —  The  territory  of  Mary 
land,  as  it  was  granted  to  Lord  Baltimore,  included  also 
the  present  State  of  Delaware  and  the  southern  part  of 
Pennsylvania.  When  Pennsylvania  was  granted  to  Penn, 
in  1 68 1  (§  121),  a  long  dispute  followed  between  Penn 
and  Lord  Baltimore  as  to  the  boundary  between  their 
grants.  The  matter  was  settled  in  1763,  and  the  boun 
dary-line  was  run  as  at  present.  This  was  called 
<<Mason_and  Dixon's  Hrj£L, "  from  the  names  of  the  sur 
veyors  who  marked  it,  and  was  long  considered  the 
boundary  between  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  States. 

88=  Religious  Persecution  was  not  allowed  in  Maryland 


1750]  NORTH  CAROLINA  57 

while  the  Catholics  retained  control  of  the  province.  In 
this  respect  the  Baptist  colony  of  Rhode  Island,  the  Catho 
lic  colony  of  Maryland,  and  the  Quaker  colony  of  Penn 
sylvania  deserve  credit  above  the  other  colonies.  Other 
settlers  soon  came  into  Maryland,  and  they  were  not  so 
liberal.  Some  were  from  Virginia,  and  disliked  the  Mary 
land  government;  others  were  Puritans,  and  disliked  the 
Roman  Catholics.  In  1692,  Maryland  became  an  Episco 
palian  colony,  like  Virginia  (§  83).  Laws  were  passed 
to  support  the  Church  of  England  by  taxes,  and  religious 
toleration  was  checked.  The  unfortunate  Roman  Catho 
lics,  who  had  founded  the  colony  and  admitted  others  to 
it,  were  now  harshly  treated,  forbidden  to  vote,  and  forced 
to  pay  taxes  for  the  support  of  another  church.  This 
state  of  things  lasted  until  the  Revolution,  when  religious 
intolerance  came  to  an  end. 

89.  The  Maryland  Colonists  lived  very  much  like  those 
of  Virginia  (§§  83,  84).      Chesapeake  Bay  furnished  great 
advantages  for  ships  engaged  in  foreign  commerce,  and 
the  Susquehannah  River  at  its  head  opened  up  the  Indian 
trade  to  the  merchants  of  Maryland.      Baltimore  became 
one  of  the  busiest  towns  on  the  coast,  and  the  population 
of  the  colony  grew  from   200  in    1634  to  30,000  in  1700, 
50,000  in  1715,  and  about  150,000  in  1750.      There  were 
hardly  any  serious  Indian  wars  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the 
colony. 

(3)   North  Carolina. 

90.  Carolina  was  granted  in  1663  and  1665,  by  Charles 
II.,  to  eight  proprietors.1     It  included  the  territory  now 

1  Among  the  proprietors  were  Hyde,  Lord  Clarendon ;  Monk,  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  who  had  been  a  leader  in  restoring  Charles  II. ;  Lord  Ashley 
Cooper,  afterward  Earl  of  Shaftesbury;  Governor  Berkeley  of  Virginia 
(§82);  and  his  brother  and  Carteret,  afterward  proprietors  of  New  Jersey 


58  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  [1607 

in  the  States  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia,  and  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  French 
at  Port  Royal  had  called  the  country  Carolina,  a  hundred 
years  before  (§  18),  in  honor  of  their  king,  Charles  IX. 
(Carolus,  in  Latin) ;  and  the  English  now  retained  the 
name,  in  honor  of  their  king,  Charles  II.  The  country 
had  remained  uninhabited  since  the  failure  of  the  French 
colony,  except  that  a  few  Virginians  had  pushed  down  the 
coast  and  settled  the  northern  shore  of  Albemarle  Sound. 

91.  The   Plan   of   Government    which    the    proprietors 
formed  for  their  new  colony  was  very  remarkable.     There 
were  to  be   nobles,   called  barons,   landgraves,  and  cas- 
siques,  each  with  a  certain  number  of  acres  of  land.      The 
rest  of  the  people  were  to  have  no  share  in  the  govern 
ment,   and  were  to  be   bought   and   sold   with   the  soil. 
The  plan  was  wholly  unfit  for  an  American  settlement, 
and  the  colonists  refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it; 
but  for  more  than  fifty  years  the  proprietors  tried  at  inter 
vals  to  force  it  on  the  colony.1 

92.  The   Province    remained   united    for  about  seventy 
years.      But  it  was  found  from  the  beginning  that  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina  covered  too  much  space  to 
be  easily  governed  as  one  colony.      They  were  therefore 
considered  two  counties  of  the  same  province,  and  each 
had  its  own  assembly  and  governor.      In  1729,  the  pro 
prietors  gave  up  their  rights  to  the  king.      Both  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina  then  remained  royal  colonies 
until  the  Revolution. 

93.  In  North  Carolina  the  proprietors  adopted  the  Vir 
ginian  settlement  (§  90)  as  their  own,  and  called  it  the 

1  This  was  the  only  colony  in  which  there  was  an  attempt  to  have  a 
nobility  (§37).  John  Locke,  an  English  philosopher,  who  was  at  one  time 
Ashley's  secretary,  drew  up  the  plan,  which  is  known  as  the  ''  Fundamental 
Constitutions." 


1750]  NORTH  CAROLINA  59 

Albemarle  colony.  In  1665,  a  colony  from  Barbadoes 
settled  near  the  Cape  Fear  River.  It  was  called  the 
Clarendon  colony,  but  was  soon  removed  into  South 
Carolina.  The  population  of  the  whole  colony  grew  very 
slowly  for  a  time.  There  were  a  few  settlers  from  New 
England,  and  more  fled  to  North  Carolina  from  Virginia 
after  the  failure  of  Bacon's  rebellion  (§  82).  New  Berne 
was  settled  by  a  colony  of  Swiss  in  1711.  After  1740, 
there  was  an  increase  of  settlement,  because  of  rebellions 
in  Scotland.  Those  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  out 
breaks  were  allowed  by  the  British  Government  to  leave 
Scotland,  and  many  of  them  settled  in  North  Carolina. 
Fayetteville  was  settled  by  Scotch  immigrants  in  1746. 
The  population  of  the  colony  was  estimated  at  1 1,200  in 
1715,  and  at  about  90,000  in  1750. 

94.  The  Government  was  generally  bad.      Hardly  any 
colony  had   such   a   remarkable    succession   of  bad    men 
sent  out  as  governors;    and  the    early  history  of  North 
Carolina  is  mainly  one  of  resistance  by  the  people  to  the 
governors'    illegal    taxation.       In     1677,    one     governor 
attempted  to  enforce  the  Navigation  Acts  (§  67);  and  the 
people  imprisoned  him  and  set  up  a  new  government  for 
themselves.      In  1688,  another  governor  was  driven  away 
from  the  colony.      In  1771,  Governor  Tryon  collected  an 
army,  fought  a  pitched  battle  with  his  people,  who  called 
themselves  Regulators,   and  defeated   them.      The   cruel 
manner  in  which  he  punished  the  leaders  drove  many  of 
them  across  the  mountains,  and  helped  to  settle  Tennessee 

(§300. 

95.  Indian  Wars  were  few.      The  most  important  was 
with  the  Tuscaroras,  in    1711.      With  the  help  of  South 
Carolina,  the  colony  defeated  the  Indians,  and  drove  most 
of  them  away  to  New  York,  where  they  became  one  of 
the  Six  Nations  (§  3). 


6o 


THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES 


[1607 


96  Scattered  Population. — The  North  Carolina  colonists 
were  at  first  more  widely  scattered  than  the  settlers  in  any 
other  colony.  The  great  pine  forests  had  no  good  roads ; 
and  the  people  were  mainly  engaged  in  making  tar  and 

turpentine  from  the 
trees.  As  they  ex 
plored  the  country 
farther  from  the. coast, 
they  found  it  much 
more  open  and  fertile, 
and  here  they  engaged 
in  farming  and  hunt- 
'//  ing.  But  they  were  still  very 
much  scattered,  and  were  unable 
to  introduce  schools  in  any  great 
number,  or  the  conveniences  of  set 
tled  life.  Nevertheless,  the  colony 
became  firmly  established.  It  refused 
to  allow  religious  persecution,  defeated 
the  attempt  to  make  the  Church  of  England  the  official 
church,  and  became  a  place  of  refuge  for  those  who  were 
persecuted  in  neighboring  colonies.  But  the  spirit  of 
independence  which  marked  the  people  was  not  pleasant 
to  the  governors,  who  often  called  them  4<a  turbulent 
people.  " 

(4)   SontJi  Carolina. 

97.  The  First  English  Settlement  in  South  Carolina  was 
made  in  1670.  A  colony,  sent  out  by  the  proprietors, 
reached  the  coast  at  Port  Royal,  then  sailed  north  to  the! 
Ashley  River,  and  on  the  first  highland  above  the  mouth 
of  the  river  established  a  settlement,  which  was  afterward 
called  Old  Charlestown.  The  location  was  found  to  be 
a  poor  one,  and  in  1680  the  settlement  was  moved  down 


1 750]  SOUTH  CAROLINA  61 

to  the  point  of  land  between  the  Ashley  and  Cooper 
rivers,  where  Charleston  now  stands.  The  Clarendon 
colony  from  North  Carolina  soon  joined  it  (§  93).  Dutch 
families,  dissatisfied  with  English  rule  in  New  York 
(§  in),  also  came  to  South  Carolina,  and  so  did  a  num 
ber  of  French  Huguenot  settlers,  driven  from  home  by 
religious  persecution.  As  in  North  Carolina,  there  were 
many  Scotch  settlers.  The  population  of  the  colony  was 
estimated  at  16,750  in  1715,  and  about  80,000  in  I75O.1 

98.  The   Colony    first   became   prosperous   through   the 
cultivation  of  rice,   which  began  in   1693.      For  a  time, 
rice  was  the  money  of  the  colony,  as  tobacco  was  in  Vir 
ginia   and   Maryland    (§  78).      In    1740,   it   required   two 
hundred    and    fifty-seven     British    vessels    to    carry    the 
colony's  produce  to  Europe.      In  1754,  indigo  was  intro 
duced  with  still  more  success.      These  two  articles  made 
South  Carolina  one  of  the  richest  of  the  colonies.     Cotton 
was  not  successfully  cultivated  until  after  1793  (§  315). 

99.  Two  Districts,  the  uplands  and  the   lowlands,  were 
formed  in  the  colony  as  population  grew.      The  uplands, 
toward  the  mountains,  were  settled  by  foreign  immigrants 
and  mountaineers,  who  cultivated  small  farms  or  engaged 
in  hunting.     This  part  of  the  colony  had  little  money  and 
few  negro  slaves.      The  lowlands,  where  the  rice,  indigo, 
and  cotton  grew,  contained  the  wealthy  people  and  the 
large  plantations.     This  part  of  the  colony  was  cultivated 
by  negro  slaves,  for  it  was  unhealthy  for  white  laborers ; 
and  before  many  years  there  were   more  than  twice    as 
many  negroes   as  whites.      In   1740,   there  was   a   small 
negro  insurrection. 

100.  The  People  were  thus  very  poor  in  the  uplands, 
and  very  much  scattered  in  the  lowlands.      There  were 

1  Charleston  was  the  only  important   town.     It  was  known  as  Charles 
Town  until  after  the  Revolution'. 


62  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  [1607 

hardly  any  schools  except  in  Charleston;  but  the  rich 
planters  of  the  lowlands  sent  their  sons  to  England  to  be 
educated.  The  people  of  the  lowlands  were  generally 
members  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  in  1706  they 
made  that  the  established  church  of  the  colony.  But  there 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  any  religious  persecution 
in  this  colony. 

101.  Early  Wars. — None  of  the  southern  colonies  took 
part   in   the   early   French   wars,    with   the  exception   of 
Queen  Anne's  War  (§71).    In  1702,  South  Carolina,  then 
the    southernmost    colony,    sent    an    expedition     to    the 
Spanish  territory  of  Florida.      It  captured  St.  Augustine, 
but  was  driven  away  by  the  arrival  of  two  Spanish  war- 
vessels.      In  1706,  a  French  and  Spanish  expedition  from 
Cuba  appeared  before  Charleston,   but  the  South  Caro 
linians  fought  so  well  that  it  was  beaten  off  with  the  loss 
of  half  its  men.      Before  the  next  war  took  place,  Georgia 
had  become  the  southernmost  colony,  and  did  most  of  the 
fighting  (§  1 06). 

102.  Indian   Wars. — The    Indian  allies  of  France  and 
Spain  were  always  troublesome.      In  1715,  they  formed  a 
confederacy  to  destroy  the  white   settlers.      The  colony 
was    aided    by    Virginia    and    North   Carolina;    and    the 
Indians  were  defeated,  and  their  power  was  broken.     The 
proprietors  refused  to  pay  their  share  of  the  expense  of 
these  wars;   and  in   1719,  before  they  had  given  up  their 
rights,   the  people  overturned  the  government,   and  ob 
tained  a  governor  from   the  king.      South  Carolina  then 
remained  a  royal  colony  until  the  Revolution. 

(5)   Georgia. 

103.  The  English  Poor  suffered  terribly  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century.     Those  who  could  not  pay  their  debts 
were    imprisoned    in    jails,    whose    condition    was    filthy 


1750]  GEORGIA  63 

beyond  description.  Their  sufferings,  and  those  of  the 
English  poor  generally,  touched  the  heart  of  James 
Oglethorpe,  an  English  officer  and  a  kindly  man.  In 
1732,  he  obtained  from  King  George  II.  a  grant  of  that 
part  of  South  Carolina  west  of  the  Savannah  River.1  He 
named  this  territory  Georgia,  in  honor  of  the  king.  The 
English  Parliament  made  grants  of  money  to  assist  those 
who  wished  to  emigrate. 

104.  The  First  Settlement  was  made  in  1733,  at  Savan 
nah,  where  Oglethorpe  himself  planted  a  colony  of  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  persons.      Colonies  of  Germans  and 
Scotch  followed.      Darien  and  Augusta  were  founded  in 
1736.      But  the  colony  increased  so  slowly  that  in  1750 
there  were  but  five  thousand  inhabitants,  living  in  these 
three  towns  and  on  a  few  scattered  plantations.     Its  terri 
tory    extended    to    the    Mississippi    River,    covering   the 
larger  part  of  the   present   States  of  Georgia,  Alabama, 
and  Mississippi ;  but   most  of  it  was  still  in  the  hands  of 
the  Indians.     Oglethorpe  treated  the   Indians  justly,   and 
bought  from  them  the  land  that  he  needed.     The  Indians 
gave  the  colonists  very  little  trouble. 

105,  Georgia  was  the   latest  and  the    weakest  of  the 
colonies.      Slavery  was  at  first  forbidden  in  it,  and  many 
of  the  colonists  believed  that  this  was  the  reason  for  their 
lack  of  prosperity.      In  1747,  the  trustees  yielded  to  the 
wishes  of  the  colonists,  and  allowed  negro  slaves  to  be 
brought  into  the  colony.      In  1752,  the  trustees  gave  up 
the   colony   to   the   king,    and   Georgia   became   a   royal 
colony. 


1  As  the  territory  of  South  Carolina  had  been  surrendered  to  the  king  in 
1729  (§92),  its  people  could  make  no  objection  to  the  king's  formation  of  a 
new  colony  within  their  territory.  Indeed,  they  favored  it,  in  order  to 
have  a  new  colony  as  a  barrier  between  themselves  and  the  Spaniards  in 
Florida  (§  101). 


64  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  [1607 

106.  The  Spanish  War.—  -England  declared  war  against 
in    I739>    and    tne  whole    burden   of  the   war  in 


__  _ 

America  fell  on  the  southernmost  colonies.  Early  in 
1740,  Oglethorpe  attacked  Florida  with  Georgia  troops, 
and  captured  two  towns.  He  went  again  to  Florida  some 
months  afterward,  with  fresh  troops  from  South  Carolina, 
and  laid  siege  to  the  principal  town,  St.  Augustine. 
Sickness  in  his  army  broke  up  the  siege,  and  he  retired  to 
Georgia.  In  1742,  a  Spanish  expedition  returned  the 
attack.  Oglethorpe  met  it  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Altamaha  River,  and  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  one  battle. 
They  then  retired  to  Cuba,  and  warlike  operations 
ceased.1 

(6)    The  Southern  Colonies  in  General. 

107  Their  Independent  Position  —  The  southern  col 
onies,  in  their  early  history,  did  not  generally  act  together 
as  the  New  England  colonies  did  (§  66).  New  England 
was  not  a  large  territory.  Its  people  were  more  closely 
settled,  were  nearly  all  of  the  same  blood,  and  were  thus 
very  likely  to  act  together.  The  territory  covered  by  the 
southern  colonies  was  very  large,  and  was  crossed  by  very 
many  large  rivers  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Most 
of  the  people  were  English,  but  there  were  also  many 
Scotch,  Irish,  French,  Germans,  and  Dutch.  Each 
planter  lived  at  a  distance  from  others,  on  a  great  planta 
tion.  For  all  these  reasons,  life  in  the  southern  colonies 
was  quiet,  and  had  little  to  do  with  neighboring  colonies. 

108.  The  People  of  the  southern  colonies  lived  generally 
as  in  Virginia  (§  83).  There  were  many  large  planta- 

1  Oglethorpe  returned  to  England  in  1743  and  remained  there.  While 
he  lived  he  continued  to  be  a  warm  friend  to  the  colonies.  He  died  in 
1785,  at  the  age  of  97,  having  seen  the  independence  of  the  United  States 
acknowledged  by  Great  Britain  (§  263). 


1 750]  SUPPLEMENTARY   READING  65 

tions,  and  few  large  towns  or  attempts  at  manufactures. 
Many  of  the  planters  owned  their  own  vessels,  and  sent 
them  directly  to  Europe  from  their  plantations.  Many  of 
them  also  kept  their  accounts  very  carelessly,  and  were 
hopelessly  in  debt  to  the  agents  in  Europe  who  sold  their 
cargoes  and  bought  goods  in  return  for  them.  There 
were  very  few  schools ;  the  children  of  the  planters  were 
educated  in  Europe  or  at  home  on  the  plantation,  while 
poorer  children  were  educated  very  little  or  not  at  all. 
As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  neighboring  colonies 
and  neighboring  people  had  most  to  do  with  one  another 
in  New  England,  less  in  the  middle  colonies,  and  least  of 
all  in  the  southern  colonies.1 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  life  of  a  Virginia  planter. 

2.  Bacon's  rebellion. 

3.  Local  government  in  a  southern  colony  (e.g.,  Maryland). 

4.  England  and  the  African  slave-trade. 

5.  Why   was   there   no    colonial    union,    such    as    the    New 
England  Confederation,  in  the  south  ? 

6.  Class  distinctions  in  the  southern  colonies. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — For  the  charters,  see  MacDonald's  Select  Charters, 
Nos.    i,    2,    3,    12,    26,    32,    and  49.     The  extracts   in    Hart's' 
Contemporaries,  vol.  i.,  chaps.  9-13,  illustrate  from  contemporary 
sources  the  social  conditions  in  the  southern  colonies. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — Fiske's  Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neigh 
bors  is  the  best  recent  account  of  the  early  history  of  the 
southern  colonies.  It  should  be  compared  with  Doyle's  English 
in  America,  vol.  i.,  chaps.  6-12,  and  Eggleston's  Beginners  of  a 

1  The  separation  of  life  in  the  Southern  States  influenced  their  history 
strongly  down  to  recent  times.  The  people  of  each  State,  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  country  by  long  distances  and  poor  communication,  were  apt 
to  think  the  State  the  most  important  and  powerful  part  of  the  country. 


66  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  [i75° 

Nation,  bk.  i.,  chaps.  2  and  3.  Lodge's  Short  History,  chaps, 
i-io,  is  also  useful.  Bruce' s  Economic  History  of  Virginia  is 
of  prime  importance,  and  not  too  learned  for  general  use.  Of 
histories  of  separate  colonies  and  states,  Browne's  Maryland, 
Cooke's  Virginia,  Moore's  North  Carolina,  and  Jones's  Georgia 
are  favorably  known.  McCrady's  South  Carolina  under  the 
Proprietary  Government  and  South  Carolina  under  the  Royal 
Government  are  more  elaborate,  but  indispensable  for  that 
colony.  There  is  a  life  of  Oglethorpe  by  Bruce. 

ILLUSTRATIVE    LITERATURE. — Mary  Johnston's   Prisoners   of 
Hope  and  To  Have  and  To  Hold;  N.  B.  Eyster's  A  Colonial  Boy; 
Tucker's  Hans  ford;  J.    P.    Kennedy's  Rob  of  the  Bowl;  W.  G. 
Simms's  Cassique  of  Kiawah  and  Yemassee. 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE    MIDDLE    COLONIES 

1623-1750 

(i)   New  York. 

109.  The   Dutch   Settlement    of   New    Netherland    has 
already    been    narrated    (§  28).      Four    governors,    Peter 
Minuit,   Wouter   van    T wilier,   William   Kieft,   and  Peter 
Stuyvesant,  sent  out  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company, 
ruled  New  Netherland  successively  from  1626  until  1664. 
By  that  time,  the  English  colonies  to  the  north  and  south 
had  grown   so   strong  that  they  began  to   feel   it   to  be 
troublesome    and    dangerous    to   have   a    foreign    colony 
between  them.      In  1664,  King  Charles  II.,  claiming  that 
the  territory  of  New  Netherland  belonged  to  England  by 
discovery,  and  that  the  Dutch  were  only  intruders,  granted 
the  territory  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York.     The  duke 
sent  out  a  force,  the  same  year,  under  Colonel   Nichols, 
who  compelled  Stuyvesant,  the  last  Dutch  governor,  to 
give  up  possession.      The  territory  then  became  the  Eng 
lish  colonies  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  (§  118). 

110.  New  York  became  a  royal  colony  in  1685,  when 
its  owner,   the  Duke  of  York,  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
A  large  part  of  Long  Island  was  settled  by  Connecticut 
people,   who  claimed  it  as  part  of  their  colony ;  but  the 
duke's  power  was  too  great  for  them  to  resist,  and  Long 
Island   became  a   part   of   New   York.      But    New  York 
was  then  no  such  important  power  as  it  has  since  become. 

67 


68  THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES  [1623 

To  the  north,  it  included  both  banks  of  the  Hudson  to 
Albany.  Beyond  Albany,  there  were  a  few  scattered 
settlements,  such  as  Schenectady,  but  almost  the  whole 
territory  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Indians  or  the  French, 


PETER  STUYVESANT. 

and  could  hardly  be  considered  a  part  of  New  York  at  all. 
New  York  was  thus  a  small  colony,  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
on  the  Hudson,  with  a  fine  harbor  and  island  at  the  south, 
and  at  the  northwest  an  excellent  opportunity  for  growth. 
111.  Holland  had  good  reason  to  complain  of  the  con 
quest  of  New  York,  and  in  1673,  while  at  war  with 
England,  the  province  was  retaken  by  the  Dutch.  Many 
of  the  people  were  not  sorry  for  the  change ;  but  the 


1 750]  NEW    YORK  69 

colony  was  given  back  to  the   English  when  peace  was 
made  in  1674. 

112.  The  Settlement  of  the  colony,   under  the   Dutch, 
had  been  accomplished  by  granting  large  tracts  of  land  to 
"patroons,"  that  is,  men  who  brought  over  a  number  of 
settlers  for  their  estates.      New  York  was  thus   different 
from  New  England ;   instead  of  little  townships,   divided 
into  farms  owned  by  the  farmers,   it  had   large  tracts  of 
land    owned    by    patroons,    and    the    farmers    were    only 
tenants.1      On  the  other  hand,  it  was  also  different  from 
the  southern  colonies ;   for  the  people  lived  rather  closer 
together,  and  had  more  to  do  with  one  another. 

113.  The  English  Government  of  New  York  was  almost 
always  bad.      The  Duke  of  York  did  not  allow  the  people 
to  elect  an  assembly  until  1683,  and  as  soon  as  he  became 
king,  in  1685,  he  took  the  privilege  away.     It  was  restored 
by  William  and  Mary  in    1691,  and  was  not  taken  away 
again.      Very  many  of  the  governors  were  men  unfit  to 
govern.      The  people  drove  one  of  them  out  in  1689,  and 
put  one  of  their  own  number,  Jacob  Leisler,  into  his  place. 
Leisler   refused    to    recognize    the    authority   of   the    new 
governor,    Sloughter,    sent  out  by  William  and   Mary  in 
1691,    and  the  governor  arrested  him  for   high   treason. 
When   Leisler   had  been   convicted,    Sloughter   was  per 
suaded    to    sign    his    death-warrant.       Other    governors 
were  no  better  than  Sloughter.      One  was  believed  to  be 
a  partner  of  the  pirates  who  infested  the  coast;   another 
swindled  the  colony  and  robbed  its  treasury;   and  another 
cheated  the  people  by  making  them  pay  illegal  fees. 

114.  Pirates,  or  buccaneers,  were  very  troublesome  to 
all  the  colonies  in  their  early  history,  particularly  to  New 
York.     They  made  navigation  so  dangerous  that,  in  1697, 

1  The  patroon  system  was  not  changed  under  the  English,  and  traces  of 
it  have  remained  until  our  own  day  (§514).  • 


7°  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES  Ll623 

Captain  Kidd,1  a  New  York  shipmaster,  was  sent  against 
them  by  the  governor.      He  ran  away  with  the  vessel  and 


NEW  YORK  CITY  IN  1656. 

turned  pirate  himself.  He  returned  some  three  years 
afterward,  was  arrested,  tried  in  England  and  hanged. 
Piracy  in  American  waters  was  finally  put  down  about 
1720. 

115.  Negro  Slavery  existed  in  the  colony,  though  there 
were  not  so  many  slaves  as  in  the  southern  colonies.      In 
1741,  it  was  believed  that  the  negroes  in  New  York  City 
had  made  a  plot  to  kill  all  the  whites.      Before  the  excite 
ment  ceased,  4  whites  and    18   negroes  were  hanged,   14 
negroes  were  burned  at  the  stake,  and  71    negroes  were 
banished.      It  is  almost  certain  now,  however,  that  there 
was  in  reality  no  such  plot. 

116.  New  York  City  had  become  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  places  on  the  coast  before  1750.     Its  great  advan 
tages   were    its    fine    harbor,    and   the    noble  river  which 
emptied  into  it.      The  other  towns  on  the  coast  were  shut 
off  from  the  far  west  by  the  Appalachian   or  Alleghany 
Mountains,  which  follow  the  Atlantic  coast,  at  a  distance 
of  one  or  two  hundred  miles  from  the  sea,  from  Georgia 
to  Maine.      But  the    Hudson  River  breaks  through   this 

1  Kidd's  name  is  variously  given  as  William  or  Robert.     There  are  many 
stories  as  to  the  places  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  buried  his  money. 


1750] 


NE 'IV    YORK 


barrier,  and  thus  New  York  had  easy  access  to  Canada 
and  the  profitable  Indian  trade.  In  1697,  the  city  con 
tained  about  4, 300  inhabitants,  one  third  of  them  being 
slaves.  The  city  extended  from  the  Battery  to  a  palisaded 


THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES. 

wall  where  Wall  Street  now  runs.  All  above  Wall 
Street  was  in  the  country.  The  population  grew  to  about 
8,500  in  1730,  and  about  12,000  in  1750. 

117.  The  Growth  of   the  Colony  was  slow  but  steady. 
The   population   was   about    31,000  in   1715,    and   about 


72  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES  [1623 

90,000  in  1750.  The  principal  places  were  New  York 
City,  Albany  (called  by  the  Dutch  Fort  Orange),  and 
Kingston.  Brooklyn  was  only  a  ferry  station  from  New 
York  City  to  Long  Island.  To  the  north  and  west  of 
Albany,  Schenectady  was  founded  in  1661.  It  was  but 
a  frontier  village,  and  was  captured  and  plundered  by  the 
French  and  Indians  in  1690,  and  again  in  1748. 

(2)   New  Jersey, 

118.  New  Jersey  was  a  part  of  New  Netherland  under 
the   Dutch   (§  28).      In  1664,  the  Duke  of  York  granted 
it  to  Lord  John   Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.1      In 
1676,  it  was  divided,  East  Jersey  going   to  Carteret,  and 
West  Jersey  to  a  company  of  Quakers,  who  had  bought 
out  Berkeley's  interest.     In  1702,  all  the  proprietors  gave 
up  their  rights  to  the  queen,  and  New  Jersey  became  a 
royal   colony.      It  had  the  same  governor  as  New  York 
until  1738  ;  but  in  that  year  it  became  an  entirely  separate 
colony. 

119.  The  First  Settlement  was  made  in  1664  at  Eliza- 
bethtown  (now  Elizabeth),  by  Puritans  from  Long  Island. 
Newark  was  settled  by  Connecticut  people  in  1666.      Bur 
lington,  a  Quaker  town,  founded  in  1677,  was  one  of  the 
capitals  of  the  colony ;   Perth  Amboy  was  the  other,  and 
it  was  thought  for  a  long  time  that  it  was  to  be  a  greater 
city  than  New  York.      The  population  of  the  colony  was 
estimated  at  22,500  in  1715,  and  at  about  75,000  in  1750. 

120.  The   Government    was    at    first    very    satisfactory. 
The  proprietors,    in    1665,  granted  to   the  people   certain 
"concessions,"  which  were   practically  a  charter.      The 
colony  was  to  be  governed  by  an  assembly  elected  by  the 

1  The  name  New  Jersey  was  given  in  compliment  to  Carteret,  who  had 
been  governor  of  the  island  of  Jersey  in  the  English  Channel. 


1 7  5  o  ]  PENNS  YL  YAW  A  7  3 

people,  and  a  governor  and  council  appointed  by  the  pro 
prietors.  When  New  Jersey  became  a  royal  colony,  the 
governors  often  attempted  to  overrule  the  assembly,  and 
frequent  disputes  took  place.  But  the  people  were  very 
little  annoyed  by  these  disputes.  Most  of  them  were 
prosperous  farmers,  and  the  mild  laws  and  freedom  of  the 
colony  attracted  many  immigrants,  particularly  Dutch 
from  New  York  and  Long  Island.  In  1746,  the  College 
of  New  Jersey,  the  fourth  American  college,  was  founded 
at  Elizabethtown ;  in  1756  it  was  removed  to  Princeton 
and  has  since  remained  there. 

(3)  Pennsylvania. 

121.  The   Quakers    were    persecuted   in    England,   and 
they,  too,    longed  for  an  American  place  of  refuge.      It 
was  for  this  reason  that  some  of  them  had   bought  a  part 
of  New  Jersey  (§  118).      In    1681,  their  most  influential 
leader,  William  Penn,  obtained  from  Charles  II.,  in  pay 
ment  of  a  debt  which  the  British  Government  owed  to  his 
father,  a  grant  of  the  territory  which  is  now  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania.1     Although  he  meant  this  to  be  a  Quaker 
colony,   he  did    not   shut   out  persons  of  other  religious 
beliefs,  and  he  did  not  allow  religious  persecution  of  any 
kind.      In  1682,  he  obtained  from  the  Duke  of  York  what 
is  now  the   State  of  Delaware,  and  added  it  to  his  colony 
(§  128). 

122.  The  Quakers  differed  from  the  Church  of  England 
in  many  respects,  but  particularly  in  their  refusal  to  serve 
as  soldiers,  or  to   encourage  war  in   any  way.      Further, 
they  made  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  take  no  oaths,  and 

1  The  name  Pennsylvania  means  "  Penn's  woods"  or  "  Penn's  forest 
country."  It  was  given  by  the  king,  not  by  Penn.  The  southern  boundary 
was  settled  only  after  long  disputes  with  Lord  Baltimore  (§87). 


74  THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES  Ll623 

not  to  take  their  hats  off  in  the  presence  of  other  men. 
Such  ideas  and  practices  were  considered  highly  dis 
respectful  by  English  magistrates,  and  the  harmless 
Quakers  were  sent  to  jail  or  otherwise  punished  for  persist 
ing  in  them. 

123.  Settlement  had  been  begun  already  by  the  Swedes 
and  Dutch,  principally  in  Delaware.     Chester  (then  called 
Upland)  was  founded  by  them  in    1643.      Penn  at  once 
sent  out  a  company  of  emigrants,  and  in  1682  came  over 
himself  with  a  still  stronger  company.     He  is  said  to  have 
met  the  Indians  under  a  great  elm-tree,  by  the  side  of  the 
Delaware  River,   where  he  bought  the  land  from  them, 
and  made  with  them  a  treaty  of  peace  and  good-will  which 
was  not  broken  for  seventy  years.     Early  in  1683,  he  laid 
out  a  capital  city  for  the  colony,  calling  it  Philadelphia, 
a  name  which  means  "brotherly  love." 

124.  The  Government  of  the  new  colony  was  unusually 
good.      The  governor  was  to  be  appointed  by  the  pro 
prietor;   the  assembly  was  to  be  elected  by  the  people; 
and  the  governor  and  assembly  were  to   make  the  laws. 
No   one  believing    "in   one  Almighty  God"   was  to  be 
annoyed  for  his  religious  belief.      Christians  of  every  sect 
could  vote  or  hold  office.     All  this  was  due  to  Penn,  who 
made  out  the  plan  of  government  and  offered  it  to  the 
colonists.      With  some  changes,  this  plan  of  government 
remained  in  force  until  17/6. 

125.  Penn  and  his  Province. — Penn  was  deprived  of  his 
province  in  1692,  because  he  was  suspected  of  siding  with 
James  II.  ;   but  in  a  short  time  it  was  given  back  to  him. 
In  1699,  he  made  another  visit  to  the  colony.      He  died 
in   1718,  and  his  sons  became  proprietors.      Part  of  the 
land  had  been  reserved  for  them,  and  as  the  colony  grew 
older,  the  people  became  more  discontented  with  the  pay 
ment  of  rents.      There  were  many  disputes  and  much  ill 


PHILADELPHIA 


75 


feeling  between  the  people  and  the  proprietors,  and  during 
the  Revolution  the  State  abolished  the  rents,  paying  the 
proprietors  £130,000  ($650,000)  for  them. 

126.  Philadelphia  grew  rapidly,  and  was  larger  than 
New  York  City  until  after  the  Revolution.  In  1740,  it 
had  about  12,000  inhabitants,  and  was  as  thriving  a  place 
as  any  on  the  coast.  It  was  noted  above  other  cities  for 
its  excellent  buildings,  its  cleanliness,  and  its  care  for 


WILLIAM  PENN. 

education.  The  printing-press  was  introduced  in  1686, 
and  a  public  high-school  in  1689.  The  University  of 
Pennsylvania  dates  from  17/9,  and  has  absorbed  certain 
other  educational  institutions  established  in  Philadelphia 
as  early  as  1749. 


7 6  THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES  [1623 

127.  The  Growth  of  the  Colony  was  steady.  Its  popula 
tion  (with  Delaware)  was  estimated  at  45,800  in  1715, 
and  about  200,000  in  1750.  Most  of  these  were  farmers, 
and  Philadelphia  was  the  only  important  city.  The 
western  part  of  the  province,  where  Pittsburgh  now  stands, 
was  for  many  years  unsettled  (§  307) ;  and  the  coal  and 
iron  of  the  eastern  part,  which  now  support  thriving 
towns,  were  quite  unknown.  No  colony  except  New 
York  had  among  its  settlers  such  a  variety  of  peoples  and 
languages.  As  a  general  rule,  the  English  kept  to  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  colony,  the  Dutch  and  Germans 
to  the  east  and  northeast,  and  the  Scotch  and  Irish  to  the 
central  part. 

(4)  Delaware. 

128.  Delaware,   or   New   Sweden,    was    settled   by  the 
Swedes  in    1638,    and  conquered  by  the   Dutch  in    1655 
(§  29).      It  passed  with   New  Netherland  to  the  Duke   of 
York,  who  transferred  it  to  Penn  in    1682    (§121).      Its 
people  were  allowed  a  separate  assembly  in  1703,  but  had 
the  same  governor  as  Pennsylvania,  and  were  considered 
a  part  of  Pennsylvania  until  the  Revolution.      They  then 
formed  a  State  government  of  their  own,  at  first  under  the 
name  of  "the   Delaware  State,"  and  then  under  that  of 
the  State  of  Delaware.     Their  colony  had  previously  been 
known   only  as    "the  Territories,"  or  "the  three  lower 
counties  on  the  Delaware. ' '  l 

(5)    The  Colonies  in  General. 

129.  The   Population    of  the    American    colonies    had 
grown  from  nothing  in  1606  to  about  1,260,000  in  1750. 
We   have    only   estimates    of  the    population  at  different 

1  Delaware  takes  its  name  from  the  river  and  bay  which  front  it,  and 
these  were  named  from  Lord  Delaware,  who  is  said  to  have  visited  the  bay 
in  1610. 


BRITISH  CESSIONS 
TO irss. 


1 750]  COLONIAL   ASSEMBLIES  77 

times,  but  these  estimates,  made  by  careful  men,  are 
probably  not  far  from  the  truth.  In  1688,  the  colonies 
had  about  200,000  inhabitants;  in  1714,  about  435,000; 
in  1/27,  about  600,000;  and  in  1750,  about  i,26o,ooo.1 
Evidently  these  were  growing  colonies,  growing  far  faster 
than  England  was  growing,  or  than  any  other  country 
had  ever  grown.  All  these  people  considered  themselves 
Englishmen,  and  were  proud  of  the  name.  Most  of 
them  had  never  seen  the  king,  but  all  were  proud  of 
being  his  subjects.  The  king  of  Great  Britain  had  thus  a 
fair  chance  of  becoming  more  powerful  than  other  kings 
in  Europe,  for  he  had  a  new  and  fast-growing  kingdom 
across  the  Atlantic. 

130.-;'  The  Assemblies — The  characteristic  feature  of  the 
government  of  the  English  colonies  was  the  assemblies. 
These  were  elected  by  the  people,  and  constituted  the 
law-making  bodies  of  the  colonies,  although  in  some 
colonies  the  power  was  shared  with  a  council,  appointed 
by  the  king.  Where  not  provided  for  in  the  charter,  as 
in  Massachusetts,  they  were  supposed  to  act  by  permission 
of  the  king  or  the  proprietor,  and  subject  more  or  less  to 
instructions  given  to  the  governors ;  but  the  distance  of 
the  colonies  from  England  made  necessary  the  existence 
of  a  legislative  body  close  at  hand  and  acquainted  with 
the  condition  and  needs  of  the  colony.  When  coloniza 
tion  began  in  North  America,  the  people  of  Europe  as  a 
whole  had  no  share  in  making  laws  or  in  choosing  those 
who  did  make  them,  that  privilege  being  confined  either 
to  certain  families  or  to  certain  classes  of  people.  In  the 
colonies,  the  franchise,  or  right  of  voting,  was  not  at  first 
free,  but  was  restricted,  for  example,  to  men  who  had  a 

1  Bancroft  divides  the  population  in  1754  as  follows  :  New  England, 
436,000  ;  middle  colonies,  380,000  ;  southern  colonies,  609,000  (222,000 
being  slaves);  total,  1,425,000. 


7 8  THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES  [1623 

prescribed  amount  of  property,  or  who  professed  a  par 
ticular  religious  belief.  But  the  number  of  those  who 
could  vote  for  members  of  the  assemblies  was  at  first 
relatively  large,  and  tended  constantly  to  increase.  Since 
laws  made  by  these  local  legislatures  were  more  satisfac 
tory  to  the  people  than  those  made  by  some  remote  body 
could  have  been,  the  assemblies  came  to  be  looked  upon 
as  valuable  safeguards  against  unfair  discrimination  or 
oppression;  and  when,  years  afterwards,  the  British  Par 
liament  began  to  exercise  more  generally  its  right  to 
make  laws  for  the  colonies,  it  was  the  assemblies  that  led 
the  resistance. 

131.  The  Industry  of  the  Colonies  was  remarkable. 
The  people  grewr  tobacco,  rice,  indigo,  and  other  products, 
which  the  people  of  Great  Britain  were  glad  to  take  and 
pay  for  with  their  own  manufactures.  A  great  trade  with 
the  colonies  had  thus  grown  up,  and  it  made  both  Great 
Britain  and  the  colonies  richer.  The  colonies  were  now 
so  much  richer  and  stronger  that  they  were  already  able 
to  vote  money,  ships,  and  men  to  help  the  king  in  his 
wars.  All  this  increase  of  wealth  and  power  had  hardly 
cost  England  or  the  king  anything.  The  colony  of 
Georgia,  the  weakest  of  all,  was  the  only  one  which  had 
ever  received  help  in  money  from  the  British  Govern 
ment. 

132,*  Great  Britain's  Feeling  seemed  to  be  one  more  of 
alarm  than  of  pleasure  at  the  rapid  growth  of  the  colonies. 
The  kings  of  England  had  always  considered  the  colonies 
as  very  subordinate  parts  of  their  possessions.  The 
governments  of  Europe  had  always  looked  upon  colonies 
primarily  as  sources  of  wealth,  whose  trade  and  natural 
resources  were  to  be  managed  for  the  benefit  of  the 
mother  country.  It  was  to  carry  out  this  policy  that  the 
Navigation  Acts  had  been  passed.  In  1696,  a  Board  of 


1 75°]  GROWTH   OF   THE   COLONIES  79 

Trade  and  Plantations  had  been  formed,  to  watch  the 
progress  of  the  colonies  and  enforce  the  Navigation  Acts. 
As  the  colonies  grew  richer  and  more  populous,  the  task 
of  the  Board  became  more  difficult;  while  the  colonies, 
at  the  same  time,  found  the  Navigation  Acts  an  increasing 
annoyance,  and  began  systematically  to  evade  them. 

133.  The  Scattered  Settlements  along  the  coast  were  at 
first  widely  separated.      There  was  a  long  stretch  of  forest 
between  each  colony  and  its  nearest  neighbor;  and  it  was 
easier  for  a  man  at  Boston   to  get  to  London  than  to  get 
to  New  York   or   Charleston.      The  colonies,    except   in 
New  England,  had  very  little  to  do  with  their  neighbors ; 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  history  of  each  colony 
has  so  far  been  given  separately.      In   1750,   things  had 
changed  very  much.      The  spaces  between   the  original 
colonies  were  now  pretty  well  filled  with  settlements ;  and 
men  might  travel  overland   along  the  whole  coast,  with 
out  running  any  great  danger  from  Indians,  wild  beasts, 
or   starvation.      In    1740,    George   Whitefield,   the   great 
revivalist  preacher,  travelled  through  the  whole  of  the  new 
country,  from  Georgia  to   New  England.      A  journey  in 
America  was  a  far  morer  aduous  affair  than  now,  however, 
for  the  roads  were  very  bad,  there  were  few  bridges,  and 
steam  was  not  yet  used  for  travel ;   but  it  was  far  easier 
than  it  had  been  at  first.      Intercourse  between  the  colo 
nies  had  become  more  common.      It  was  now  easier  for 
them  to  act  together  than  to  act  separately;   and,  as  they 
did  act  together  from  this  time,  their  history  must  hence 
forth  be  given  as  one.1 

134.  Summary. —  It  has  seemed  best,  so  far,  to  give  the 

1  The  New  England  colonies  had  already  often  acted  together,  and 
even  formed  a  union  in  1643.  Nearly  all  the  colonies  were  now  to  act 
together  in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  All  the  colonies  finally  united 
in  resisting  the  king  and  Parliament,  in  beginning  the  Revolution,  and  in 
making  a  new  nation,  the  United  States  of  America. 


8o  THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES  [1623 

history  of  the  different  colonies  in  geographical  groups. 
The  leading  events  in  their  history,  in  order  of  time,  are 
as  follows: 

1606  :  English  Colonization  begun §25 

1607:  VIRGINIA  first  settled  at  Jamestown 31 

1619:  First  legislative  assembly 76 

Slavery  first  mentioned 39 

1676  :  Bacon's  Rebellion 82 

1620:   MASSACHUSETTS  first  settled  at  Plymouth 45 

1630:     Massachusetts    Company    transferred     to 

America 48 

1691 :  The  two  colonies  united 54 

1692  :  The  Salem  witchcraft ,  53 

1623:  NEW  HAMPSHIRE  first  settled  at  Dover  and  Ports 
mouth 55 

1641 :  Became  part  of  Massachusetts 56 

1691  :  Became  a  separate  colony 56 

1623  :  NEW  YORK  settled  at  New  Amsterdam  by  the  Dutch.  28 

1664  :  Conquered  by  the  English 28 

1691 :   Leisler's  execution 113 

1 74 1 :  Negro  plot 115 

1634  :   MARYLAND  first  settled  at  St.  Mary's 86 

1692  :   Toleration  ceased 88 

1763  :   Mason  and  Dixon's  line  settled 87 

1634-6  :  CONNECTICUT  first  settled  at  Wethersfield,  Windsor, 

and  Hartford 58 

1638:   New  Haven  settled 60 

1639:  The  first  constitution  adopted .58 

1665  :  The  two  colonies  united 61 

1636  :   RHODE  ISLAND  first  settled  at  Providence 62 

1644  :  Its  plantations  united 63 

1638  :   DELAWARE  first  settled  by  the  Swedes 29 

1655:  Conquered  by  the  Dutch 29 

1664  :  Conquered  by  the  English 29 

1682:  Sold  to  Penn 121 

1703  :  Became  a  separate  colony 128 

1643  :  The  New  England  Confederation  formed 66 

1651:  The  Navigation  Acts  begun 67 

1663:  NORTH  CAROLINA  first  settled  at  Albemarle 90 

1711:  The  Tuscarora  War 95 

1729:  The  colony  transferred  to  the  king 92 


1750]  SUMMARY  8 1 

1664  :  NEW  JERSEY  first  settled  at  Elizabethtown §119 

1702  :  Became  a  royal  colony 1 18 

1738:  Became  a  separate  colony 1 1 8 

1670:  SOUTH  CAROLINA  first  settled  at  Old  Charlestown .  .  .  97 

1729:  Became  a  royal  colony 92 

1675  :  K*ng  Philip's  War  begun 68 

1682  :  PENNSYLVANIA  settled  near  Philadelphia 123 

1683:  Philadelphia  founded 123 

1701 :  The  new  charter  given 1 24 

1686  :  The  Andros  Government  begun 70 

1 702  :  Queen  Anne's  War  begun 71 

1710:  Port  Royal  (Annapolis)  taken 72 

1713  :  Queen  Anne's  War  ended 71 

1 733  :  GEORGIA  first  settled  at  Savannah 104 

1740:  The  Spanish  War 106 

1752  :  Georgia  became  a  royal  colony 105 

1 744  :  King  George  s  War  begun 71 

1745  :  Louisburg  captured 72 

1748  :  King  George's  War  ended 71 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Dutch  life  in  New  Amsterdam. 

2.  The  Quakers  in  England. 

3.  The  Quakers  in  New  Jersey. 

4.  A  Delaware  hundred. 

5.  The  Quaker  schism  in  Pennsylvania. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — The  charters,  and  extracts  from  the  principal 
grants,  are  given  in  MacDonald's  Select  Charters,  Nos.  9,  29, 
3°>  35>  36,  38/39,  40,  41,  44,  and  46;  the  New  Jersey  "con 
cessions  and  agreements,"  ibid.,  Nos.  31  and  37.  Hart's  Con 
temporaries,  vol.  i.,  chaps.  22-26,  deals  with  the  period  covered 
by  this  chapter. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  best  general  account  of  the 
middle  colonies,  and  also  the  most  recent,  is  Fiske's  Dutch  and 
Quaker  Colonies.  Lodge's  Short  History,  chaps.  11-17,  gives  a 
narrative  more  closely  packed  with  facts.  Of  state  histories, 
Roberts' s  New  York,  Brodhead's  New  York,  vols.  i.  and  n.  (to 
1691),  Scharf's  Delaware,  Raum's  New  Jersey,  Cornell's  Penn 
sylvania,  and  Egle's  Pennsylvania,  part  i.,  are  the  most  useful; 


82  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES  \*15° 

Lamb's  History  of  the  City  of  New  York  and  Scharf  and  West- 
cott's  History  of  Philadelphia  are  also  important.  The  best  life 
of  Penn  is  that  of  Janney.  Of  contemporary  Pennsylvania 
writers,  none  is  so  important  as  Franklin,  who  made  his  home 
in  Philadelphia  after  1723. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — J.  K.  Paul  ding's  Koningsmarke; 
Irving' s  Knickerbocker  s  History  of  New  York;  E.  L.  Bynner's 
The  Begum' s  Daughter;  Eldridge  Brooks' s  In  Leisler 's  Times; 
Cooper's  Water  Witch;  Whittier's  Pennsylvania  Pilgrim;  Whar- 
ton's  Through  Colonial  Doorways, 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE   STRUGGLE    FOR   ENGLISH    SUPREMACY 
1750-1763 

(i)  French  Settlement. 

135.  English  Colonization  had  now  seized  firmly  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America,   between  Canada  and 
Florida,  and  had  there  formed  thirteen  colonies.      These 
colonies  were  most  of  them  supposed  to  extend  westward 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean;  but  their  actual  population  did  not 
extend  half  as  far  westward  as  did  their  boundaries  when 
they  became  States.     From  New  England  to  Georgia  the 
Appalachian   or   Alleghany   Mountains   were    a    western 

"barrier  for  all  the  colonies,  beyond  which  population  had 
not  yet  passed.  Between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Missis 
sippi  River  the  whole  country  was  now  claimed  by  the 
French,  who  had  passed  into  it  from  Canada,  and  called 
it  New  France,  or  Louisiana.1 

136.  Canada   fell    into   the   hands   of  the  French   after 
1605,    without  any  opposition    from  the    English   (§  19). 
Champlain      pushed     westward     and      explored     western 
Canada  and   northern   New  York :    Lake   Champlain  was 
named    after    him.         Other    Frenchmen    followed    him, 

1  The  French  claim  really  included  the  whole  of  western  New  York  also. 
Properly,  the  name  New  France  included  Canada  and  all  the  French  posses 
sions  in  North  America.  The  name  Louisiana  was  given  to  such  French 
possessions  as  are  now  within  the  United  States.  After  1763,  the  name  was 
given  to  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  (§  155). 

83 


84 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY      [i?5° 


the  most  enterprising 
Indians.      In     1673,    one 


being 


of 


SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN. 


French  missionaries  to  the 
them,  named  Marquette, 
with  a  trader  named  Joliet, 
entered  what  is  now  the 
United  States,  in  search  of 
a  great  river  of  which  the 
Indians  had  told  them. 
They  found  the  Mississippi, 
and  sailed  down  that  river 
to  about  the  place  where  De 
Soto  had  crossed  it  (§  14). 
In  much  the  same  way, 
French  explorers  made 
known  a  large  part  of  what 
are  now  the  northwestern 
States.  In  1682,  La  Salle 
sailed  down  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  and  named  the 
whole  region  Louisiana.  In  1684,  he  attempted  to  plant 
a  colony,  which  he  brought  from  France,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi,  but  could  not  find  the  river,  and  sailed 
on  to  Texas.  Here  he  was  murdered,  and  his  colony 
was  broken  up  by  sickness  and  starvation. 

137.  The   First   French   Settlement    within    the    north 
western  United  States  was  the  mission  of  St.  Mary,  near 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  now  in   Michigan.      It  was  established 
in    1668  (§  19).      Other  French  missions  were  gradually 
established  at  different  points  in  the  northwest,  but  none 
of  them  came  to  be  important  places. 

138.  French  Colonization  within  the  United  States  really 
began  in  1699,  when  DTberville  was  sent   by  way  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  find  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.      He 
found   it,    and   fixed   a   settlement  at  Biloxi,    within   the 
present  State  of  Mississippi.      In  1702,  he  removed  it  to 
Mobile,   which   became  his  capital.      In    1716,   a  French 


1763] 


THE  FRENCH  POSSESSIONS 


company,  the 
Mississippi 
Company, 
obtained  a 
grant  of 

Louisiana;  and  in  1718,  it  sent 
a  colony  and  founded  the  city 
of  New  Orleans,  which  soon 
became  the  principal  settlement 
in  the  Mississippi  valley. 

139.  The  French  Possessions 
in  North  America  had  thus  be 
come  very  large  before  1750. 
To  secure  them,  the  French 
had  erected  a  chain  of  some 
sixty  forts,  stretching  from  New 
Orleans  to  Montreal,  many  of 
which  have  since  become  im 
portant  towns.  The  present 
cities  of  New  Orleans,  Natchez,  Vincennes,  Fort  Wayne, 
Toledo,  Detroit,  Ogdensburg,  and  Montreal  are  near 


86  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY       [1750 

enough  to  the  sites  of  some  of  these  old  forts  to  mark  out 
the  general  course  of  the  chain.  Back  of  it,  toward  the 
Mississippi  and  the  great  lakes,  were  other  forts,  as  at 
Mackinaw  and  Peoria.  Not  all  of  these  forts  have  grown 
into  cities:  some  of  them  have  entirely  disappeared.  One 
of  these  is  Kaskaskia,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  long  the  most  important  place  in  what  is  now  the 
State  of  Illinois. 

140.*  The  Weakness  of  the  French  empire  in  America 
was  in  the  fewness  of  its  inhabitants  in  comparison  with 
the  extent  of  its  territory.  The  wrhole  population  of  New 
France,  including  Canada,  was  only  about  100,000  in 
1750,  \vhile  the  population  of  the  English  colonies  was 
nearly  fifteen  times  as  large  (§  129).  Within  the  present 
territory  of  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  there 
were  perhaps  not  more  than  7,500  Frenchmen,  and  most 
of  these  were  fur-traders  or  adventurers,  strong  enough 
to  keep  the  Indians  in  check,  but  not  numerous  enough 
to  settle  the  country.  France  had  never  tried  to  build  up 
its  colonies  in  the  same  way  that  England  had  done,  by 
peopling  the  country  with  settlers  and  their  families,  and 
developing  agriculture  as  well  as  trade.  In  consequence, 
the  French  colonies  in  America  were  much  more  depend 
ent  upon  France  than  the  English  colonies  were  upon 
England.  Then,  too,  New  France  was  governed  by 
officials  sent  from  France,  many  of  whom  cared  nothing 
for  the  country,  and  were  often  corrupt.  But  the  French 
commanders  were  energetic  and  skilful  in  defending 
themselves  and  harassing  the  English,  and  had,  more 
over,  the  friendship  of  the  Indians;  while  their  geo 
graphical  position  was  one  difficult  to  attack,  but  rela 
tively  easy  to  defend. 

141.  The  Ohio  Company. — Just  as  Raleigh's  unsuccess 
ful  colonies  came  before  the  successful  settlement  of  the 


1763]  THE  FRENCH  ON   THE  OHIO  87 

coast,  so  a  number  of  unsuccessful  English  land  com 
panies  came  before  the  successful  settlement  of  the  great 
West.  Their  object  was  to  buy  up  vast  tracts  of  land  at 
a  low  price,  induce  settlers  to  move  thither  by  giving 
them  part  of  the  land,  and  thus  make  the  rest  of  the  land 
so  valuable  as  richly  to  repay  all  expenses.  One  of  the 
earliest  of  these  land  companies,  the  Ohio  Company,  was 
organized  in  1749  by  some  London  merchants  and  some 
leading  Virginians.  Its  lands  lay  in  western  Pennsylvania, 
which  was  then  claimed  by  Virginia  (§  79).  The  com 
pany  at  once  sent  out  surveyors  and  traders,  and  began 
opening  roads  for  emigrants. 

142.  The  French  took  the  alarm  as  soon  as  the  Ohio 
Company  was  formed,  and  sent  men  to  secure  the  country 
between  the  Alleghanies  and  their  chain  of  forts.  In 
1753,  they  erected  a  strong  fort  at  Presque  Isle,  where 
Erie  now  stands,  and  prepared  to  build  a  new  chain  of 
forts  southward,  toward  the  Ohio  River.  Governor  Din- 
widdie,  of  Virginia,  determined  to  send  an  agent  to 
remonstrate  with  the  French  commander.  George  Wash 
ington  (§  294),  then  a  Virginia  land-surveyor,  not  quite 
twenty-two  years  old,  but  already  known  for  his  prudence 
and  clearheadedness,  was  selected  as  the  agent.  He  made 
his  way  through  the  wintry  wilderness  up  the  Potomac 
River  to  the  Monongahela,  down  that  river  to  its  junction 
with  the  Alleghany,  and  up  the  Alleghany  until  he  met 
the  French  commander.  That  officer  refused  to  leave  the 
disputed  territory,  and  Washington  returned  with  what 
was  really  a  declaration  of  war.1 

1  The  "  French  and  Indian  War"  which  followed  was  at  first  entirely  an 
American  war  :  hostilities  did  not  break  out  in  Europe  until  1756  (§  147). 


88  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR   ENGLISH  SUPREMACY       [1750 


(2)    77ie  French  and  Indian  War. 

143.  Virginia  had   raised  about  400  troops  in  the  mean 
time,  and  Washington,  who  knew  the  country  well,  was 
put  in  command  of  them,   with  the  rank  of   lieutenant- 
colonel.1      He  turned  back  with  them  on  the  road  which 
he  had  just  travelled,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  a  fort 
which  the  Ohio  Company  was  building  at  the  junction  of 
the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers,  where  Pittsburgh 
now  stands.      Both  parties  knew  very  well  the  importance 
of  this  place,  and  were  pushing  to  secure  it.     The  French 
men  won  in  the  race,  and  captured  and  strengthened  the 
fort,    which    they    named    Fort    Duquesne.       They    then 
passed  on  to  attack  Washington,  who  was  coming  down 
the  Monongahela  River. 

144.  The  First  Fight  of  the  war  followed  their  meeting. 
Washington,    with    a  part  of  his  force,    met  an  advance 
party  of  the  French  and   Indians,  and  killed  or  captured 
nearly  all  of  them.      But  the   French   main  body  was  so 
much  superior  in  numbers  that  he  moved  back  a  few  miles 
up   the   Monongahela,   to   a   fort  which   he    named    Fort 
Necessity.      Here  he  surrendered,  July  4,   1754,  on  con 
dition  that  he  and  his  men  might  return  to  Virginia.      He 
had  done  so  well  with  the  small  force  at  his  command, 
that  he  became  Virginia's  principal  military  officer  for  the 
rest  of  the  war. 

145.  The  English  Colonies  were  now  all  acting  together 
for   the   first   time   in   their   history.      There   were   South 
Carolina  troops  with  Washington  at  Fort  Necessity;  and 
all  the  colonies  voted  money,   men,   and    arms    to  help 
Virginia.      Heretofore  the  colonies  had  been  dragged  into 

1  At  first  the  colonel  in  command  was  a  man  named  Frye.      But  lie  died  on 
the  road,  leaving  the  command  to  Washington. 


1763]  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN   WAR  89 

wars  by  England ;  now  they  were  disposed  to  make  war 
on  their  own  account,  for  they  all  felt  that  this  western 
territory  was  necessary  to  their  future  growth.  The 
British  Government  was  at  first  disposed  to  let  them  fight 
it  out  for  themselves,  and  advised  them  to  form  a  plan  of 
united  action.  Accordingly,  in  1754,  Maryland,  Penn 
sylvania,  New  York,  and  the  New  England  colonies  sent 
delegates  to  a  meeting  at  Albany.  Here  the  "  Albany 
plan  of  union,"  proposed  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  was 
agreed  upon.  The  Albany  plan  proposed  a  congress  of 
not  more  than  seven  or  less  than  two  delegates  from  each 
colony,  according  to  the  colony's  proportion  of  taxes  paid; 
and  a  governor  general,  appointed  by  the  king,  with 
the  power  to  veto  (forbid)  any  law  of  the  congress  which 
he  should  consider  wrong  or  unwise.  But  it  looked  so 
much  like  an  American  government,  independent  of  Great 
Britain,  that  the  British  Government  rejected  it;  while  it 
gave  the  king  so  much  power  that  the  colonies  rejected  it 
also.  It  is  important,  however,  as  a  step  towards  union. 
146.  England  and  France  both  began  to  send  troops  to 
America,  for  both  knew  that  war  must  soon  come.  The 
colonies  also  were  everywhere  stirring  with  warlike  prep 
arations.  In  June,  1755,  a  force  of  British  regulars  and 
provincial  (colonial)  troops  sailed  from  Boston,  and 
captured  the  few  remaining  French  forts  in  Acadia  (Nova 
Scotia).  From  this  time  the  whole  of  Acadia  (Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick)  became  English  territory,  as 
it  still  remains.  The  expedition  was  disgraced  by  an  act 
of  harshness  on  the  part  of  the  English.  The  French 
inhabitants  were  ordered  to  assemble  at  their  churches. 
They  were  then  seized  and  sent  southward  along  the 
coast  to  different  English  colonies;  and  their  houses  and 
crops  were  burned  to  prevent  their  return  to  their  homes. 
In  the  same  month  that  Acadia  was  taken,  General  Brad- 


90  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY       [i?5o 

dock,  a  brave,  obstinate,  and  self-confident  British  officer, 
marched  from  Virginia  through  Pennsylvania  against  Fort 
Duquesne.  He  expected  to  fight  the  French  and  Indians 
in  line  of  battle,  and  refused  to  heed  the  advice  of  Wash 
ington,  who  was  one  of  his  aides,  to  send  scouts  in 
advance.  Within  a  few  miles  of  Fort  Duquesne,  the 
French  and  Indians  completely  surprised  Braddock's  long 
line,  killed  him  and  more  than  half  his  men,  and  chased 
the  rest  for  miles  on  the  road  back  to  Virginia.  The  only 
real  resistance  was  made  by  Washington  and  his  Vir 
ginians,  who  fought  from  behind  trees  in  Indian  fashion, 
and  checked  the  pursuit.  A  month  later,  a  New  York 
expedition  against  Crown  Point,  under  Sir  William  John 
son,  defeated  the  French  and  Indians,  under  Baron 
Dieskau,  near  the  southern  end  of  Lake  George,  but  did 
no  more.  The  year  1755  thus  closed  badly  for  the 
English. 

147,  Declaration  of  War  was  made  by  both  England  and 
France  in  the  spring  of  1756,  so  that  the  war  was  no 
longer  confined  to  America.  The  British  Government  was 
at  first  very  inefficient,  and  sent  out  incompetent  officers 
to  America,  so  that  little  was  accomplished  during  the 
two  years  1756  and  1757.  The  English  and  provincial 
forces !  marched  hither  and  thither,  fighting  little,  and 
gradually  drawing  back  before  their  enemies.  The 
French  were  now  commanded  by  a  great  soldier,  Mont- 
calm.  His  forces  were  not  large,  but  he  made  the  most 
of  them.  Each  English  force  acted  for  itself,  while  he 
used  all  his  men  together  against  one  point  after  another. 
He  thus,  for  two  years,  kept  the  English  out  of  the  dis 
puted  territory,  captured  the  few  forts  which  they  had 

1  By  provincial  troops  are  meant  the  soldiers  furnished  by  the  provinces  or 
colonies.  The  British  troops  in  America  in  1758  numbered  about  50,000,  Of 
these,  28,000  were  provincials,  and  22,000  were  regulars. 


1763]  WILLIAM   PITT  91 

built  along  the  northern  border  of  New  York,  and  gained 
all  the  Indians  to  his  support. 

148.  The   Year    1758    changed    all    this.      One    of  the 
greatest  men  in  English  history,  William  Pitt,  was  called 
to  the  head  of  the  British 
Government,   and  every 
thing   felt    his    influence. 
Inefficient    officers    were 
removed,   and  the  whole 
English  force  was  thrown 
upon  the  French  at  three 
points.     In  July,  a  sea  ex 
pedition  captured   Louis- 
burg,    on     Cape     Breton 
Island   (§   72).       In  No 
vember,  a  land  expedition 
captured    Fort   Duquesne 
without     resistance,     and 
renamed  it  Fort  Pitt  (now 
Pittsburgh).       The    only 
failure    of   the    year  was    that  of  an    expedition    against 
Ticonderoga,    where    Montcalm    commanded    in    person. 
The  British  assaulted  the  French  works,  and  were  defeated 
after  losing  about  1,600   men.      But  a  part  of  the  English 
force  drove  the   French  out  of  northwestern   New  York, 
and  captured  Fort  Frontenac,  on  the  Canada  side  of  Lake 
Ontario,  where  Kingston  now  stands. 

149.  These  Successes  were  largely  due  to  the  manner 
in  which  Pitt  brought  in  the  colonies  to  help  the  regular 
troops.  Provincial  troops  took  part  in  all  these  expedi 
tions,  and  thus  learned  to  make  war  and  to  have  confi 
dence  in  themselves.  Many  of  the  American  officers  who 
afterward  took  part  in  the  Revolution  received  their 
training  in  the  campaigns  of  the  French  and  Indian  War. 


WILLIAM  PITT. 


92  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY        [1759 

150.  The  Year  1759  was  still  more  successful.  It  was 
known  that  the  English  intended  to  attack  Quebec  this 
year,  and  Montcalm  was  forced  to  draw  off  most  of  his 


JAMES  WOLFE. 


troops  to  defend  that  city.  Consequently,  Ticonderoga, 
Crown  Point,  and  a  strong  French  fort,  Fort  Niagara,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  without  much  resistance. 
From  Louisburg  the  English,  under  General  Wolfe,  sailed 


I759J  QUEBEC  93 

up  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  attack  Quebec.  Their 
ships  gave  them  command  of  the  river,  but  above  them 
rose  the  lofty  cliffs  on  whose  top  the  fortifications  of 
Quebec  had  been  built.  The  French  could  not  be  tempted 
to  come  out  of  their  stronghold;  and,  after  a  siege  of 


QUEBEC. 

nearly  three  months,  the  English  were  very  much  dis 
couraged.  Finally  Wolfe  decided  to  climb  the  cliffs  and 
find  the  enemy. 

151,  Quebec. — On  the  appointed  night,  Wolfe's  army 
floated  down  the  river  in  boats,  and  was  landed  on  the 
little  river-beach  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs.  All  through  the 
night  the  men  were  clambering  up  a  path  which  the 
French  had  not  taken  the  trouble  to  guard;  the  sailors 
dragged  up  eight  or  ten  small  cannon ;  and,  in  the  morn 
ing  of  September  13,  the  English  army  was  drawn  up  on 


94  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY      [175° 

the  Plains  of  Abraham,  in  front  of  the  upper  city.  There 
were  still  walls  to  be  attacked;  but  Montcalm,  startled  by 
the  sudden  appearance  of  the  English,  moved  his  army 
out,  and  fought  a  battle  on  the  open  plain.  Both  Wolfe 
and  Montcalm  were  killed,  but  the  French  were  com 
pletely  defeated.  Five  days  afterward,  the  city  was  sur 
rendered.  Both  generals  lived  long  enough  to  know  the 
result  of  the  battle.  Wolfe,  when  told  of  it,  said,  "  Then 
I  die  happy."  Montcalm,  when  told  that  he  must  die, 
said,  ''So  much  the  better;  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the 
surrender  of  Quebec. 

152.  The  Conquest  of  Canada  followed  in   1760.      Mon 
treal  surrendered  to  the  English.     Then  the  other  French 
forts  were  given  up  as  rapidly  as  English  troops  could  be 
sent  to  take  them.      The  French  troops  were  sent  home 
to  France,  and  the  French  dominion  in  North  America 
was   over.1      Many    of  the    Indians    disliked    to   see    the 
British    troops    holding  the    forts   in   their  territory.      In 
1763,  Pontiac,  an  Ottawa  chief  living  near  Detroit,  formed 
a    league   of   Indian    tribes    to   destroy   the    newcomers. 
But  the  plan  was  revealed  by  a  friendly  Indian;  the  attack 
on  Detroit  was  beaten  back;   and  the  Indians,  after  some 
hard  fighting,  begged  for  peace. 

153.  Spain  entered  the  war,  in  1762,  to  assist  France. 
In  that  year,  an  English  expedition,  with  many  provincial 
troops  in   it,  sailed  to   the   Spanish  island  of  Cuba,    and 
captured  the   rich    city  of  Havana.      The    people  of  the 
colonies    now  sent  out   privateer's   against  Spanish  com 
merce;    and  the  growth  of  the    colonies  was    shown   by 
the  fact  that  their  privateers  in  this  war  outnumbered,  in 

1  Though  the  war  was  over  on  the  continent  of  North  America,  it  con 
tinued  elsewhere  for  about  three  years.  England  and  France  were  still 
fighting  on  the  ocean,  and  wherever  either  could  reach  the  other's  do 
minions. 


[1763 


RESULTS   OF   THE   IV A  R 


95 


vessels,   guns,  and  men,  the  whole  English  navy  of  150 
years  before,  when  the  colonies  were  founded. 

154.*  The  Peace  of  Paris  closed  the  war  in  1763.  Great 
Britain  had  completely  conquered  both  France  and  Spain, 
and  the  two  conquered  nations  consented  to  surrender  to 
her  the  whole  of  North  America  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
Spain  gave  up  Florida  to  Great  Britain  in  exchange 
for  Havana  (§  153).  France  gave  up  practically  all 
her  possessions  in  North 
America,  giving  her  con 
queror,  Great  Britain,  all 
the  portion  east  of  the 
Mississippi 
River,  and 


THE  FRENCH  WAR. 


her  ally,  Spain, 
the  portion  west 
of  that  river,  in 
cluding  the  city  of  New 
Orleans.  In  October  a 
royal  proclamation  was 
issued,  to  provide  for  the 
government  of  the  region 
acquired  from  France,  and  regulate  trade  with  the  Indians. 
The  territory  ceded  to  Great  Britain  was  divided  into  four 
governments,  Quebec,  East  Florida,  West  Florida,  and 
Grenada.  The  southern  boundary  of  Quebec,  and  the 
northern  boundaries  of  the  Floridas,  were  followed  later  in 
denning  the  northern  and  southern  boundaries  of  the 
United  States  in  1783  (§  263).  The  southern  boundary 
of  Georgia  was  extended  to  the  St.  Mary's  River.  The 


96  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY       [1750 

region  between  Quebec  and  the  Floridas,  and  west  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  was  reserved  as  an  Indian  coun 
try,  and  the  governors  of  the  English  colonies  were  for 
bidden  to  make  any  grants  of  land  therein.  The  Indian 
trade  was  declared  to  be  free  to  all  English  subjects,  on 
the  condition  of  obtaining  a  license  from  a  governor. 

155.  Louisiana. — Spain  kept  the  name  of  Louisiana  for 
the  territory  west  of  the   Mississippi  River,  which  she  had 
received  from  France.      It  covered,  in  general,  the  great 
region  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Mississippi 
River,  from  British  America  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (§  334). 
Almost  all  this  region,  however,  was  then  a  wilderness, 
excepting  small  portions  of  the  present  States  of  Louisiana 
and  Missouri.      New  Orleans  was  the  only  important  city. 
St.    Genevieve    was    the   oldest   settlement    in    Missouri. 
St.  Louis  was  founded  in  I/64.1 

156.  The  Leading  Events  of  the  war  are  as  follows: 
1754-7:  French  Success. 

1754  :  Surrender  of  Fort  Necessity §144 

Albany  Plan  of  Union 145 

1755  :  Braddock's  defeat 146 

Conquest  of  Nova  Scotia  (English  suc 
cess)  146 

Battle  of  Lake  George  (English  success)  146 

1756:  War  declared.  .! 147 

1756-7  :  General  French  success 146 

1758-63:  English  Success. 

1758:   Pitt  becomes  head  of  the   British  Gov 
ernment 148 

Capture  of  Louisburg 148 

Capture  of  Fort  Duquesne 148 

Battle  of  Ticonderoga  (French  success)  148 
1759:  Capture  of  Ticonderoga,  Crown  Point, 

and  Niagara 150 

Capture  of  Quebec 151 

1760:  Conquest  of  Canada 152 

1  One  of  the  founders  of  St.  Louis,  Pierre  Chouteau,  lived  in  the  city  until 
his  death  in  1849,  and  witnessed  the  enormous  changes  in  its  condition. 


1763]  STATE   OF   THE   COLONIES  97 

1762  :  Capture  of  Havana §  153 

1763  :    Pontiac's  conspiracy 152 

Peace  of  Paris 154 

(3)   State  of  tJic  Colonies. 

157.  The  Population  of  the  colonies  was  about  2,000,000 
in  1760;  and  the  colonies   had   grown   not  only  in  num 
bers,   but  in   strength   and   confidence.      Their   men  had 
fought  beside  British  regulars,   and  had  sometimes  held 
their  ground  when  the  regulars  had  run  away.      Thirty 
thousand  of  them  liLd  given  up  their  lives  in  the  war,  and 
many  of  the  colonists  were  inclined  to  feel  and  say  that 
the  colonies  had  done  more  than  their  share  of  the  fight 
ing.      None  of  the  colonies  had   yet  spread  beyond  the 
Alleghanies,  but  a  few  adventurous  hunters  were  in  the 
habit  of  crossing  the  mountains  yearly ;   and  they  brought 
back  such  favorable  reports  of  the  beauty  and  fertility  of 
the  new  country  that  settlements  there  were  begun  within 
a  few  years.1 

158.  In  Wealth,  the  colonies  were  growing  still  faster, 
and  they  began  to  look  like  a  well-settled  country.      The 
people  had  become  comfortable  and  even  prosperous,  and 
some  of  them  were  considered  wealthy.      Agriculture  had 
improved,  and  a  great  variety  of  crops  was  grown.      The 
Navigation    Acts    (§  67)   had    not    destroyed    trade.      In 
1700,  the  colonies  had  sent  to  England  about  $1,300,000 
worth  of  produce,  and  received  about  the  same  amount  of 
English   manufactures.      In    1760,   they  sent    about    four 
times  as  much,  and  received  nearly  seven  times  as  much. 
All  trade  to  other  countries   than  England  was  illegal, 
but  was  nevertheless  carried  on  largely.     Newspapers  and 

1  The  first  settlement  in  Tennessee,  led  by  James  Robertson,  was  made  in 
1768;  the  first  in  Kentucky,  led  by  Daniel  Boone,  in  1769.  There  was  no 
effort  to  'settle  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio  River  for  nearly  twenty  years  to 
come. 


98  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY       [1750 

books  had  become  common  since  the  first  American 
printing-press  had  been  set  up  at  Cambridge,  in  1639. 
The  establishment  of  King's  College  (now  Columbia)  in 
New  York  City,  in  1754,  increased  the  number  of  colleges 
to  six.1 

159.  The  Spirit  of  Union  in  the  colonies  had  grown  still 
more  rapidly.      During  the  war,  the  colonists  had  at  first 
called  themselves  provincials,   to  distinguish    themselves 
from  the  British.      Now,  for  the  first  time,  some  of  them 
began  to  call  themselves  Americans,  instead  of  English 
men,  Virginians,  or  New-Englanders.     The  colonies  were 
no  longer  altogether  separate  peoples.      They  had  come 
to  have  common  interests  and  a  common  spirit,  and  they 
were  now  very  certain  to  unite  against  any  enemy  that 
was  dangerous  to  all  of  them,  just  as    they  had   united 
against  the  French  power  of  the  north  and  west.      There 
was  no  longer  any  need  to  unite  against  the  French ;  but 
it  was  certain  that  they  would  act  toward  any  new  enemy, 
even  their  mother  country,  just  as  they  had  acted  toward 
the  French.      It  ought  to  have  been  evident  in  England 
that  the  colonies  in  North  America  had  come  to  be  so 
strong   and    so   united   that  it   was   now  needful   for   the 
British  Government  to  be  wise  and  prudent,  in  order  that 
it  might  not  make  itself  appear  to  be  their  enemy. 

160.  The   British   Government    was    neither    wise    nor 
prudent.      Most    of  its   power   was    in  the  hands  of  the 
Parliament,   which  was  at  that   time  not  elected  by  the 
whole  people.      By  artful  contrivance  or  by  accident,  the 
laws  of  election  were  such  that  a  few  rich  men,  nobles  or 

1  The  six  colleges  were  Harvard,  in  Massachusetts,  founded  in  1636 ; 
William  and  Mary,  in  Virginia,  in  1692  ;  Yale,  in  Connecticut,  in  1701  ;  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  (now  Princeton),  in  1746  ;  King's  (now  Columbia),  in 
New  York,  in  1754;  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia,  in 
1779  (§  126). 


1763]  TAXATION  OF   THE   COLONIES  99 

landowners,  controlled  the  election  of  most  of  the  mem 
bers  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  most  matters,  these 
richer  men  were  divided  into  two  parties,  which  opposed 
one  another.  In  regard  to  American  affairs,  however, 
they  were  now  united,  by  reason  of  heavy  taxes,  in  a 
claim  which  could  not  help  making  them  the  enemy  of 
the  colonies. 

161.  Taxes  in  Great  Britain  were  now  large,  and  "most 
of  them  fell  on  the  richer  men.      Heretofore  Englishmen 
had  thought  little  about  America,   considering  it  only  a 
wilderness,    from   which    no    money   could    be   obtained. 
Now  they  saw  the  colonies  voting  large  sums  of  money 
to  carry  on  the  war,  and  they  at  once  began  to  think  of 
lightening  their  own  taxes  by  laying  taxes  on  the  colonies. 
The  Parliament  had  forced  the  kings  to  yield  to  it  the 
power  to  lay  taxes  in  Great  Britain :  it  now  began  to  claim 
a  right  to  lay  taxes  on  the  colonies,  even  against  the  will 
of    the    colonies    themselves.      The    English    debt1    had 
steadily  increased  from  about  $3,  300,000  in  1689  to  about 
$700,000,000  in  1763.      Great  Britain  claimed  that  much 
of  the  debt  had  arisen  in  defending  the  colonies  from  the 
French,  and  that  the  colonies  ought  to  be  willing  to  be 
taxed  for  a  part  of  the  interest.      The  colonies  claimed 
that   neither  they  nor  the    French    colonies  had   desired 
war,  that  they  had  been  dragged  into  war  by  France  and 
England,    and   that  the  English   colonies   had  fully  paid 
their    share   of  the    expense.      At   any   rate,    they  were 
determined  not  to  submit  to  be  taxed  by  another  people. 

162.  The  Feeling  of  the  Colonies  was  that  the   claim  of 
the  Parliament  was  unjust.      Each  colony  was  ruled  by 

1  A  nation  very  often  provides  for  wars  or  other  unexpected  expenses  by 
borrowing  money.  The  written  promises  to  pay  are  called  bonds,  and  the 
nation  pays  interest  on  them  yearly,  raising  the  money  for  the  payments  by 
taxes. 


ioo  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  ENGLISH  SUPREMACY       [1750 

its  own  assembly,  or  legislature,  elected  by  nearly  the 
whole  people.  As  the  representatives  of  the  people, 
these  assemblies  alone  had  always  taxed  the  people ;  and 
the  king's  governors  had  only  named  the  amount  which 
they  desired.  The  colonists  had  thus  always  taxed 
themselves,  through  their  assemblies,  as  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  had  taxed  themselves,  through  their  Parlia 
ment.  The  colonists  were  not  allowed  to  send  repre 
sentatives  to  Parliament.  Englishmen  have  never  sub 
mitted  willingly  to  be  taxed  by  a  body  in  which  they  are 
not  represented,  and  the  colonists  were  already  too  strong 
to  be  forced  to  submit.  On  this  question  of  ' '  Taxation 
without  Representation,"  the  Parliament  and  the  colonies 
were  now  to  quarrel  for  twelve  years  until  force  was  used : 
then  came  the  Revolutionary  War. 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  government  of  New  France. 

2.  The  exploration  of  the  Mississippi. 

3.  The  early  life  of  Washington. 

4.  Plans  of  colonial  union. 

5.  The  expulsion  of  the  Acadians. 

6.  The  Seven  Years'  War  in  Europe. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Charters  gives  extracts  from 
the  treaties  of  Ryswick  (No.  45),  Utrecht  (No.  47),  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (No.  51),  and  Paris  (No.  54);  the  royal  proclamation 
of  1763  (No.  55);  and  the  Albany  plan  of  union  (No.  52). 
Texts  of  a  number  of  other  plans  of  union  are  collected  in 
American  History  Leaflets,  No.  14.  The  extracts  in  Hart's 
Contemporaries,  vol.  u.,  chaps.  1-20,  deal  with  various  aspects 
of  the  period  1689-1763;  chaps.  17-20  relate  to  the  French  and 
Indian  wars. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  period  from  1700-1750  has  been 
scantily  treated  by  historians.  Parkman's  Old  Regime  in 
Canada,  Frontenac  and  New  France,  Half-century  of  Conflict, 


1763]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  101 

Monlcalm  and  Wolfe,  and  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  are  of  the  first 
importance,  and  tell  with  great  skill  the  history  of  New  France; 
the  same  author's  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World-  and 
Jesuits  in  North  America  contain  also  more  or  less  which  falls 
within  the  limits  of  this  chapter.  On  the  English  side  there  is 
nothing  equally  good;  the  most  scholarly  is  Winsor's  Narrative 
and  Critical  History,  vol.  v.,  chaps,  i,  7,  and  8.  The  separate 
accounts  in  Lodge's  Short  History  extend  to  1765.  Useful 
brief  narratives  are  Hart's  Formation  of  the  Union,  chaps,  i 
and  2;  Sloane's  French  War  and  the  Revolution,  chaps.  1-9. 
Early  schemes  of  colonial  union  are  discussed  in  Frothingham's 
Rise  of  the  Republic,  chap.  4. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Franklin's  A utobiography ;  Thack 
eray's  The  Virginians;  Cooper's  Leather -stocking  Tales;  Gilbert 
Parker's  The  Seats  of  the  Mighty;  Longfellow's  Evangeline; 
C.  G.  D.  Roberts' s  The  Forge  in  the  Forest;  J.  E.  Cooke's  The 
Youth  of  Jefferson,  Fairfax,  and  Doctor  Van  Dyke. 


CHAPTER    VIII 
COLONIAL    RESISTANCE 

1763-1775  " 

(i)    The  Stamp  Act. 

163.  British  Regulation  of  the  Colonies. — Laws  to  regu 
late  the  colonies  and  their  affairs  had  frequently  been 
passed  by  Parliament.  Some  of  these,  such  as  the  act  to 
establish  a  post-office  system,  were  useful  to  the  colonies, 
and  were  accepted  by  them  willingly.  Others,  such  as 
the  Navigation  Acts  and  the  acts  to  forbid  manufactures 
in  the  colonies  (§  67),  they  had  not  been  strong  enough 
to  resist  openly,  but  had  evaded  or  disobeyed  as  far  as 
possible.  Of  late  years,  whenever  the  British  Govern 
ment  had  tried  to  enforce  these  laws,  it  had  failed.  In 
1761,  when  the  customs  officers  in  Massachusetts  tried  to 
obtain  writs  of  assistance  from  the  courts,  empowering 
them  to  search  houses  and  stores  for  smuggled  goods, 
James  Otis  (§  169)  made  an  impassioned  plea  against  such 
a  violation  of  the  hereditary  liberties  of  Englishmen.  In 
1764,  soon  after  peace  was  made,  Parliament  announced 
its  intention  to  raise  a  revenue  in  the  colonies.  It  went 
no  further  at  the  time,  but  waited  to  see  how  the  colonies 
would  receive  the  proposition.  But  the  colonies  were,  as 
usual,  very  busy  with  their  own  affairs,  and  paid  little 
attention  to  the  declaration  of  Parliament. 

102 


THE  STAMP  ACT 


103 


164.  The  Stamp  Act  was  passed  by  Parliament  in  the 
spring  of  1765.      It  had  been  prepared  by  the  head  of  the 
British    Government,    George    Gren- 

ville,  and  was  to  go  into  force  in  the 
following  November.  From  that 
time,  no  newspapers  or  almanacs 
could  be  published  in  the  colonies,  no 
marriage-certificate  could  be  given, 
and  no  documents  could  be  used  in 
lawsuits,  unless  stamps,  bought  from 
British  government  agents,  were 
placed  on  them,  or  the  documents  BRITISH  STAMP. 

themselves  were  printed  on  stamped  paper.1  Laws  were 
also  passed  to  enforce  the  Navigation  Acts,  and  to  send 
soldiers  to  America.  It  was  by  no  means  certain  how 
long  the  peace  with  France  (§  I  54)  would  last,  and  England 
thought  it  well  to  keep  a  few  thousand  troops  in  the 
colonies.  The  expenses  of  the  soldiers  were  to  be  paid 
out  of  the  money  received  from  the  sale  of  the  stamps. 

165.  In   America,    when   the    news   of  the    Stamp  Act 
reached  it,    there  was   no   longer  any  want  of  attention. 
All    the    colonies    hummed  with  the  signs  of  resistance. 
Able  and  eloquent  men,  like  James  Otis  in  Massachusetts, 
and  Patrick   Henry  in  Virginia,2  only  spoke  for  the  whole 

1  Such   stamp-duties  are  one  of  the   easiest  ways  of  paying  taxes.     They 
have  been  used  since,  and  are  still  used,  in  this  country.     We  submit  to  such 
taxes  now  because  they  are  laid  by  ourselves  through  our  representatives,  and, 
if  the  people  think  the  taxes  unjust,  they  can  change  the  taxes  by  changing 
their  representatives.     The  colonists  resisted  the  taxes  because  they  were  laid 
by  the  representatives  of  another  people.     They  knew  that,  if  they  submitted 
in  this  little  matter,  they  would  soon  be  taxed  in  far  heavier  ways,  and  yet 
would  never  be  able  to  change  the  representatives  or  the  taxes. 

2  Patrick  Henry,  a  young  lawyer  and  brilliant  orator,  was  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  assembly.   In  his  speech  on  the  Stamp  Act,  he  named  several  tyrants 
who  had  been  killed.      "Coesar,"  said  he,  "  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  I.  his 
Cromwell,  and  George  III. —       He  was  interrupted  by  cries  of  "  Treason  !  " 


io4 


COLONIAL   RESISTANCE 


['763 


people  in  declaring  that  the  colonies  would  never  submit. 

The  assemblies,  as  fast 
as  they  met,  declared 
that  Parliament  had  no 
right  to  tax  the  colonies. 
Associations,  called  Sons 
of  Liberty,  were  formed 
to  help  the  resistance. 
As  soon  as  the  stamps 
were  sent  over,  mobs 
seized  and  burned  them, 
or  prevented  them  from 
being  offered  for  sale ;  and 
the  stamp-officers  were 
frightened  into  resigning. 
When  the  day  came  for 
the  act  to  go  into  force, 
there  were  no  stamps  to 
be  bought,  and  no  officers 
to  sell  them.  The  Stamp 
Act  had  failed. 
166.  The  Stamp- Act  Congress,  the  first  sign  of  united 
resistance  (§  159),  met  at  New  York  City,  October  7, 
1765.  It  had  been  proposed  by  Virginia  and  Massa 
chusetts  about  the  same  time.  All  but  four  of  the  colonies 
sent  delegates  to  it;  and  all  the  colonies  supported  it. 
It  had  no  authority  to  make  laws;  but  it  agreed  on  a 
declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  colonies,  and  sent  petitions 
to  the  king  and  Parliament  to  respect  those  rights.  The 
language  of  the  congress  was  carefully  made  as  gentle  as 

When  the  noise  died  away,  he  concluded  :  "  George  III.  may  profit  by  their 
example.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it."  His  resolutions,  adopted 
by  the  assembly,  were  the  boldest  declaration  of  colonial  rights  that  had  yet 
been  made. 


PATRICK  HENRY. 


1775]  THE  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT  105 

possible ;  but  its  meeting  was  evidently  a  sign  of  danger, 
if  the  attempt  should  be  made  to  punish  any  one  for  resist 
ing  the  Stamp  Act. 

167.  The  British  Government  was  taken  aback  by  the 
stir  in  America.      English   manufacturers    petitioned    for 
the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  for  the  American  merchants 
and  people  had  agreed  not  to  buy  any  more  English  goods 
until  the  repeal  should  take  place.      Pitt  and  other  friends 
of  the  colonies  in   Parliament  urged  the  repeal.      Finally, 
there    was     a     change     of    ministry    in     Great     Britain, 
another  political  party  came  into  power,  and  early  in  1766 
the  act  was  repealed.      Parliament  still  declared  its  right 
to  tax  the  colonies,  if  it  should  wish  to  do  so;   but  the 
Americans    were    convinced   that    it   would   never    again 
attempt  to  do   so,  and   were  willing  to  make   the   repeal 
pleasant  for  Great  Britain.     And  so,  for  more  than  a  year, 
they  endeavored  in  every  way  to  show  their  affection  for 
the    mother    country.        Some   difficulties   yet    remained. 
The   New  York   assembly  refused   to  furnish   supplies  to 
the  British  troops,    as   Parliament  had   directed ;   and   the 
assemblies  of  some  of  the  other  colonies  engaged  in  small 
quarrels  with  their  governors ;  but  the  colonists  in  general 
were  very  anxious  to  show  that  they  were  ' '  loyal  subjects 
of  the  king — God  bless  him! 

168.  The  Right  of  Parliament  to  regulate  the  trade  of 
the  colonies  had  not  hitherto  been  denied  by  the  colonists 
(§   67).      They  had   not   thought    very    much  about    the 
matter,  but  they  knew  that  Parliament  paid   for  a  large 
navy  to  protect  trade,    and  they  agreed  that  Parliament 
had  the  right  to  regulate  the  trade  which   was  thus  pro 
tected.      They  had  therefore  submitted  to  the  Navigation 
Acts,    though  they   obeyed   them    as    little    as  possible. 
But  the  unfortunate  Stamp  Act  had  compelled  the  colo 
nists  to  think  about  the  matter,  and  many  of  them  began 


io6 


COLONIAL  RESISTANCE 


[1763 


GEORGE  III. 


to  think  that  a  Parliament  in  which  they  were  not  repre 
sented  had  no  more  right  to  interfere  with  their  property 

on  the  sea  than  on  the  land. 
At  first,  they  only  suggested 
different  means  by  which 
members  from  the  colonies 
might  be  admitted  to  Parlia 
ment.  Many  eminent  men  in 
Great  Britain  desired  such  an 
arrangement,  and  it  is  possi 
ble  that  it  might  have  been 
successful.  But  the  king,  an 
honest  but  very  obstinate 
man,  had  lofty  ideas  of  his 
own  dignity,  and  was  deter 
mined  to  make  the  colonies 
submit  without  debate.  His  friends  in  Parliament  now 
began  a  new  scheme,  which  increased  all  the  previous 
difficulties  a  hundredfold. 

169.  Commercial  Taxation. — In  1767,  Parliament  passed 
an  act  to  lay  taxes  on  tea  and  a  few  other  articles  exported 
to  America;  another  to  send  revenue  commissioners  to 
America,  to  secure  obedience  to  the  law;  and  another 
ordering  the  New  York  assembly  to  pass  no  more  laws 
until  it  should  furnish  supplies  to  the  soldiers  (§  167). 
These  acts  left  the  colonists  no  choice.  They  had  now 
no  time  to  devise  plans  for  being  represented  in  Parlia 
ment.  Their  first  business  was  to  resist  what  they  now 
began  to  consider  a  foreign  tyranny. 

As  Massachusetts  was  the  leading  commercial  colony, 
much  of  the  first  resistance  centred  there.  Its  leaders 
were  James  Otis,  an  eloquent  speaker,  who  afterward 
became  insane;  John  Hancock,  a  Boston  merchant;  John 
Adams,  a  young  lawyer,  afterward  President;  Samuel 


WHIGS  AND    TORIES 


107 


Adams,  one  of  the  first  advocates  of  independence;  and 
Benjamin   Franklin,    the   colony's   agent   and   adviser   in 


FANEUIL  HALL,  BOSTON. 


London.  "  The  leading  royalists  were  Governor  Thomas 
Hutchinson,  a  native  of  the  colony,  and  his  brother-in-law 
Andrew  Oliver,  one  of  the  council. 

170.  Whigs  and  Tories. — For  nearly  six  years  the  colo 
nists  kept  up  a  peaceable  resistance  to  the  taxing  acts  of 
Parliament.  The  resistance  took  the  shape  of  a  general 
agreement  by  the  people  not  to  buy,  sell,  or  use  the 
articles  on  which  the  taxes  had  been  laid,  so  as  to  avoid 


io8 


COL  ON  ML   RI-SIS  TANCE 


[1763 


paying  the  taxes.  Those  who  adopted  this  plan  willingly, 
and  who  supported  the  colonies  against  the  mother 
country,  took  the  name  of  Whigs.  Those  who  refused 
to  resist  the  mother  country  in  any  way  were  called 
Tories.1  As  the  Whigs  were  in  a  majority,  and  were 
very  much  in  earnest,  the  few  Tories  were  compelled  by 
bodily  fear  to  join  in  the  general  agreement. 

171.  The  Six  Years'  Struggle,  though  it  was  meant  to 
be  peaceable,  was  continually  resorting   to  open  violence. 

In  1768,  the  revenue 
commissioners  in  Boston 
seized  John  Hancock's 
sloop  Liberty^  and  a  mob 
chased  them  to  a  British 
frigate  in  the  harbor. 
Four  British  regiments, 
under  General  Gage, 
then  took  possession  of 
Boston.  There  was  con 
stant  bad  feeling  between 
the  Boston  people  and 
the  soldiers,  or  "red 
coats";  insulting  lan 
guage  was  used  on  both 
sides ;  and  there  were  a 
number  of  street-fights 
with  sticks,  fists,  or 
snowballs.  All  this  re 
sulted  in  the  so-called 
"Boston  Massacre,"  March  5,  1770,  in  which  the  sol 
diers  fired  on  the  people,  killed  three,  and  wounded 
many  others.  In  New  York,  a  little  earlier,  the  people 

1  Whig  and  Tory  had   for  many  years  been  the  names  of  the  two  great 
political  parties  in  England  (§  479). 


JOHN  HANCOCK. 


1775]  PARLIAMENT  AND    THE  ASSEMBLIES  109 

beat  the  soldiers  in  a  street-fight.  In  North  Carolina, 
the  governor  defeated  a  part  of  the  people  in  a  pitched 
battle  (§  94).  In  1772,  a  number  of  the  Rhode  Island 
people  captured  and  burned  a  royal  vessel,  the  Gaspee, 
which  had  been  unpleasantly  active  in  collecting  duties 
from  vessels  belonging  to  Providence.  Those  who  took 
part  in  such  affairs  were  evidently  growing  bolder,  and 
any  attempt  to  punish  them,  if  they  had  been  caught, 
would  have  met  with  resistance  from  the  colonies,  and 
that  would  have  been  war. 

172.  Parliament  and  the  Assemblies. —  All  these  affairs 
occasioned  much  anger  in  Parliament,  though  it  was  not 
easy  to  see  what  was  to  be  done  to  prevent  or  punish 
them.      Angry   resolutions    declaring   the    Massachusetts 
people  rebels  were  passed,  together  with  acts  to  make  the 
collection  of  taxes  more  certain.     The  assemblies  answered 
by  declaring  their  own  rights,  and  denying  the  right  of 
Parliament  to  pass  any  such  laws.      The  colonists  cared 
very  much  more  for  the  resolutions  of  their  own  assemblies 
than  they  did  for  those  of  Parliament,  and  their  resistance 
became  so  much  the  bolder.     In  1772,  Parliament  ordered 
those  who  had  burned  the  Gaspee  to  be  sent  to  England 
for  trial,  if  they  should  be  caught.      Again  the  assemblies 
denied  the  right  of  Parliament  to  pass  such  a   law ;   and 
the  colonists  were  ready  to  resist  the  enforcement  of  it. 
The  plain  question  had  come  to  be  whether  Parliament 
was  or  was  not  to  govern  the  colonies  as  it  saw  fit. 

173,  The  Tea  Tax.  —  In  1770,  Parliament  tried  a  change 
of  plan.      The  taxes  were  taken  off  all  the  articles  except 
tea,  and  the  tax  on  tea  was  fixed  at  only  threepence,  or 
about  six  cents,  a  pound.     Arrangements  were  made  with 
English  tea-merchants,  in  1773,  to  send  cargoes  of  tea  to 
America  at  a  price  threepence   lower  than  that  which  had 
always  been  paid,  so  that  the  price  would  be  no  greater 


no  COLONIAL   RESISTANCE  [1763 

than  it  had  always  been,  even  after  the  tax  was  paid.  It 
was  hoped  that  in  this  way,  when  the  tea  was  distributed 
through  the  colonies,  not  only  the  Tories,  but  the  women, 
and  all  who  liked  to  drink  tea,  would  buy  it  at  the  old 
price,  without  seeing  that  they  were  really  paying  the 
taxes  and  obeying  Parliament. 

174.  This  Plan  was  an  ingenious  way  of  getting  around 
the  difficulty,  but  the  Americans    resisted  with  a  kind  of. 
angry  contempt.      At  Charleston  they  stored  the  cargoes 
of  tea  in  damp  cellars,  where  the  tea  was  soon   spoiled. 
At  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  other  places,  they  refused 
to  allow  the  tea-ships  to  land  their  cargoes,  and  sent  them 
back  to  England.      At  Boston  they  tried  to  do  the  same 
thing,  but  the   British  officers  would  not  allow  the  ships 
to  leave  the  harbor.      The  Boston  people  therefore  took  a 
more    violent    means,    which    is     commonly    called    the 

' '  Boston  Tea  Party. ' '  An  orderly  mob,  disguised  as 
Indians,  boarded  the  ships,  December  16,  1773,  and 
threw  the  340  chests  of  tea  into  the  harbor.  In  one  way 
or  another,  at  all  the  towns  on  the  coast,  the  colonists 
were  successful  in  their  efforts  to  prevent  the  tea  from 
being  distributed  through  the  colonies  to  tempt  the  people 
to  buy  it.  Parliament  was  again  defeated. 

175.  The   Four   Intolerable   Acts. — Parliament    now   so 
completely  lost  its  temper  that  it  took  the   last  steps  to 
open  conflict.     It  passed,  among  other  measures,  four  acts 
which  the   colonies  could  not   help  resisting.      The  first 
was  the  Boston   Port  Act:   it  forbade  all  vessels  to   leave 
or  enter   Boston    harbor.      Its   object   was   to   punish  the 
Boston  people  by  destroying  their  trade ;  but  its  effect  was 
to  anger  all  the  colonists  against  Parliament.    The  second 
was  the  Massachusetts  Government  Act:   it  changed  the 
charter  of  that  colony  so  as  to  take  away  the  government 
from  the  people,  and  give  it  to  the  king's  agent.      The 


!775]  THE  FOUR  INTOLERABLE  ACTS  m 

effect  of  this  was  to  unite  all  the  colonies  in  resistance,  for 
they  all  felt  that  they  would  soon  meet  the  same  treat 
ment  themselves  if  they  allowed  Massachusetts  to  be  so 
treated.  The  third  was  the  Administration  of  Justice 
Act:  it  ordered  that  Americans  who  should  be  charged 
with  murder  because  of  any  efforts  to  enforce  the  laws 
should  be  sent  to  England  for  trial.  The  fourth  was  the 
Quebec  Act:  it  made  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio  and 
east  of  the  Mississippi  a  part  of  Canada.  Its  effect  was 
also  to  unite  the  colonies,  for  they  felt  that  this  territory 
belonged  to  them ;  that  the  king  had  given  it  to  them 
(§25),  and  they  had  helped  to  conquer  it  from  the  French  ; 
and  that  the  Parliament  had  no  right  to  take  it  away. 
Parliament  expected  to  enforce  these  acts  by  its  standing 
army  in  the  colonies  (§  164). 

176.  The  Excitement  in  America  now  rose  higher  than 
it,  had  ever  done  before.      The  assemblies  passed  resolu 
tions  severely  condemning  Parliament,  and  many  of  them 
requested  the  people  to  keep  the  day  of  the  shutting  up  of 
Boston  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer.      In  most  of  the 
royal   colonies  the  assemblies  spoke    so    boldly  that  the 
governors  dismissed  them,  and  they  did   not  meet  again 
as  part  of  the  royal  government.      The  excitement  was  so 
great,  and  the  calls  for  a  Continental   Congress  l  were  so 
numerous,  that  delegates  were  chosen  almost  by  common 
consent,    and  without   a   summons.      Georgia  alone  took 
no  part  in  the   Congress,  though  her  people  sympathized 
with  it.2 

177.  The  First  Continental  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia, 
September   5,   1774.      It  agreed  upon  a  new  declaration 

1  "  Continental"  had  already  come  to  have  very  much  the  same  meaning 
that  "  American"  has  now.      It  meant  general,  belonging  to  the  whole  con 
tinent,  not  to  one  colony  or  a  part  of  them.      Thus  the  Stamp-Act  Congress 
(§  166),  from  only  nine  of  the  colonies,  was  not  a  "  Continental  "  Congress. 

2  The  action  of  the  governor  prevented  the  appointment  of  delegates. 


U2  COLONIAL   RESISTANCE  [1763 

of  rights :  it  asserted  the  right  of  the  colonies  to  govern 
and  tax  themselves,  and  named  eleven  acts  of  Parliament 
which  were  attacks  upon  these  rights.  It  sent  an  address 
to  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and  a  petition  to  the  king, 
but  did  not  now  petition  Parliament.  It  drew  up  an 
agreement,  called  The  Association,  which  was  signed  by 
very  many  of  the  colonists,  not  to  buy  goods  from  Great 
Britain,  or  sell  to  British  merchants,  until  the  objection 
able  acts  were  repealed  by  Parliament.  It  commended 
the  people  of  Massachusetts  for  their  peaceable  resistance, 
and  declared  that,  if  Parliament  should  use  force  to  make 
Massachusetts  submit,  all  the  other  colonies  would  use 
force  to  help  her.  Finally,  it  called  a  new  Congress  for 
the  following  May,  and  adjourned. 

178.  Representation  as  a  question  had  now  taken  a  new 
form.  At  first,  the  colonies  had  demanded  that  Parlia 
ment  should  not  tax  the  colonies  while  the  colonies  were 
not  represented  in  it;  that  is,  that  there  should  be  "No 
Taxation  without  Representation. ' '  Now  they  demanded 
that  Parliament  should  pass  no  laws  whatever  about  the 
colonies  while  the  colonies  were  not  represented  in  it; 
that  is,  that  there  should  be  "No  Legislation  without 
Representation. ' ' 

179.*  Suspension  of  Royal  Government. — The  people  of 
the  colonies  were  much  more  inclined  to  forcible  resistance 
than  was  the  Congress,  whose  language,  notwithstanding 
its  firmness,  had  been  temperate  and  restrained.  Every 
where  there  was  much  confusion.  In  New  England, 
General  Gage  had  been  appointed  governor  of  Massa 
chusetts,  and  held  Boston  with  a  British  garrison ;  but  his 
authority  was  hardly  recognized  beyond  his  line  of  troops, 
and  most  of  the  work  of  government  was  carried  on  by 
the  towns.  Elsewhere,  the  royal  governors  attempted  to 
suppress  the  colonial  assemblies,  and  the  people  fell  back 


1775]  LEXINGTON  AND   CONCORD  113 

either  upon  their  local  governments,  as  in  Massachusetts, 
or  upon  legislatures  irregularly  chosen.  Committees  of 
Correspondence,  as  they  were  called,  were  busy  collecting 
arms  and  military  supplies,  organizing  and  drilling  com 
panies  of  militia,  and  preparing  for  war  in  case  it  should 
come,  The  feeling  against  Great  Britain  was  most  intense 
in  Massachusetts,  and  it  seemed  likely  that  the  first  con 
flict  would  occur  there  if  Gage  should  attempt  to  enforce 
the  acts  of  Parliament  against  the  colony.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  all  this  vigorous  resistance 
did  not  indicate  any  general  desire  for  independence. 
The  colonies  were  prepared  to  resist,  by  force  if  need  be, 
demands  of  Great  Britain  which  they  regarded  as  illegal 
or  unjust ;  but  at  heart  the  people  still  loved  the  mother 
country,  and  were  not  to  assert  their  independence  until, 
in  the  judgment  of  Congress,  no  other  course  was  left  to 
them. 

(2)  Lexington  and  Concord. 

180,  Massachusetts,  at  the  opening  of  the  year  1775, 
was  much  like  a  powder-magazine,  which  the  first  spark 
would  explode.  The  provincial  assembly,  which  now 
governed  the  colony,  had  collected  powder  and  arms, 
and  had  ordered  20,000  "minute-men"  to  be  enrolled 
and  to  be  ready  to  march  at  a  minute's  warning.  Gage, 
in  Boston,  felt  so  insecure  that  he  began  to  erect  fortifica 
tions  on  the  neck  of  land  which  joined  the  town  to  the 
mainland,  and  sent  out  spies  into  the  surrounding  country 
to  find  out  what  the  people  were  doing.  Finally,  he  dis 
covered  that  military  stores  had  been  collected  at  Con 
cord,  a  village  about  twenty  miles  from  Boston.  He 
ordered  out  800  men  to  destroy  them,  and  this  was  the 
spark  which  brought  on  the  Revolutionary  War.  Secret 
as  the  movement  was  meant  to  be,  signals  of  it  were  sent 


H4  COLONIAL  RESISTANCE  [1763 

by  the  Boston  people  to  the  mainland ;  and,  all  through 
the  night,  men  were  riding  through  the  country,  rousing 
the  minute-men. 

181.  Lexington  is  a  village  on  the  road  between  Boston 
and  Concord.      As  the  British  marched  into  it,  just  before 
sunrise,  April  19,  1775,  they  found  about  sixty  half-armed 
minute-men  assembled  on  the  village  green.      There  was 
a  hasty  order  from  the  British  officer,  Major   Pitcairn,  a 
volley  from  his  men,  and  a  few  answering  shots.      Eight 
of  the  minute-men  were  killed,  many  \vere  wounded,  and 
the  rest  dispersed.      This  was  the  first  blood  of  the  Revo 
lution.     The  British  then  marched  on  to  Concord,  dispersed 
the  minute-men  who  had  collected  there,  and  destroyed 
the   supplies.      They  then   prepared  to  return  to  Boston. 
By  this  time  the  whole  country  was  up;  for  miles  around 
the  church-bells  were  ringing  wildly;  and  the  minute-men 
from  the   surrounding  towns  were  hurrying  toward  Con 
cord. 

182.  The  British  Retreat  was  orderly  at  first,  the  troops 
steadily  returning  the  fire   which   met  them  from  every 
house,  fence,  and  rock  along  the  roadside.      But  the  num 
bers   of  the  minute-men  were  increasing;  their  fire  was 
deadly;    and   the   retreat   became   more    disorderly.      At 
Lexington  they  met  900  fresh  troops  from  Boston,  with 
cannon,  who  sheltered  them  for  a  few  minutes,  while  they 
lay  on  the  ground  and  rested,    "their  tongues  hanging 
out  of  their  mouths,  like  dogs  after  a  chase. ' '     The  whole 
British  force  then  set  out  for  Boston.      The  minute-men 
kept  up  the  pursuit  as  hotly  as  ever  until,  toward  night, 
the    worn-out   regulars   found    shelter   on    the   waterside, 
under  the  guns  of  the  ships  of  war.1 

1  The  British  loss  was  273  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing.  The  rebels, 
as  the  British  called  the  minute-men,  lost  88.  There  were  not  more  than  400 
of  the  minute-men  engaged  at  any  one  time. 


1775]  STATE  OF  THE  COLONIES  115 

183.  Boston  was  now  besieged.      Many  of  the  minute- 
men,  who  had  kept  up  the  pursuit,  remained  in  front  of 
Boston  to  attack  any  of  the  regulars  who  might  venture  to 
come  out.     -As  the  news  of  the  fight  spread  abroad,  men 
from    the    different    New    England    colonies    started    for 
Boston,  and  within  a  few  days  the  town  was  closely  shut 
up,  except  by  sea.      This  state  of  affairs  was  nothing  else 
than  war.      The  agents  of  Parliament  had  used  force ;   the 
Massachusetts  men  had  used  force  in  return ;  and  the  other 
colonies  were  now  to  use  force  to  help  Massachusetts,  as 
they  had  already  declared  they  would  do.     The  American 
Revolution  had  begun,  and  with  it  the  national  history  of 
the  United  States  of  America  (§  190). 

(3)   State  of  the  Colonies. 

184.  The  Population  of  the  Colonies  was  about  2,600,000 
in  1775.     If  this  seems  small,  compared  with  the  70,000,- 
ooo  and  more  now  dwelling  in  the  United  States,  we  must 
bear   in   mind  that  England  and   Wales  contained  only 
6,400,000  persons  in  1750.      And  the  English  population 
increased   very   slowly,    while   that   of  the    colonies   was 
doubling  steadily  about  every  twenty-five  years. 

Population  has  been  wonderfully  changed  since  1775. 
The  population  of  the  "  old  thirteen  "  in  1775,  and  of  the 
first  thirteen  States  in  1 890,  was  as  follows.: 


1775- 

Virginia 560,000 

Massachusetts 360,000 

Pennsylvania 300,000 

North  Carolina 260,000 

Maryland 220,000 

Connecticut 200,000 

South  Carolina 180,000 

New  York 180,000 

New  Jersey 130,000 

New  Hampshire 80,000 

Rhode  Island 50,000 

Delaware 40,000 

Georgia 30,000 


1890. 

New  York 5>997>853 

Pennsylvania 5,258,014 

Illinois 3,826,351 

Ohio 3,672,316 

Missouri 2,679,184 

Massachusetts 2,238,943 

Texas 2,235,523 

Indiana 2,192,404 

Michigan   2,093,889 

Iowa 1,911,896 

Kentucky 1,858,635 

Borgia 1,837,353 

Tennessee 1,767,518 


n6  COLONIAL   RESISTANCE 

Only  four  of  the  thirteen  of  1775  appear  in  the  first 
thirteen  of  1 890.  The  population  of  the  other  States  in 
1890  will  be  found  in  Appendix  IV. 

185.*  The  Difficulty  of  Governing  such  a  growing  popu 
lation,  without  allowing  it  any  share  in  the  government, 
would  have  been  exceedingly  great,  even  if  nature  had 
placed  it  close  to  Great  Britain.  It  was  far  more  difficult 
to  govern  it  across  a  stormy  ocean,  3,000  miles  wide, 
over  which  troops  had  to  be  carried  in  sailing-vessels, 
often  taking  months  to  make  the  passage,  or  waiting 
weeks  for  fair  weather.  But  Great  Britain  was  governed 
at  the  time  by  men  who  represented  the  trading  and 
aristocratic  classes  only,  and  who  cared  more  about 
lightening  their  own  taxes,  and  making  a  large  profit  out 
of  the  American  trade,  than  they  did  about  giving  the 
colonies  good  government.  These  men  saw  no  reason 
why  America  should  not  submit  absolutely  to  the  king  and 
Parliament.  The  attempt  to  enforce  obedience  cost  the 
British  Empire  the  larger  part  of  its  American  territory. 

186.  In  Wealth  the  colonies  were  still  growing.      Their 
trade  with  Great  Britain   and   other   countries   had  been 
injured  by  the  troubles   of  the  past  twelve  years.      The 
British  war-vessels  on  the  coast  no  longer  allowed  foreign 
trade,  but  seized  every  vessel  that  took  part  in  it ;  and  the 
colonists  had  ceased  to  trade  with  Great  Britain  in  many 
articles.      To  make  up  for  this,  there  was  a  great  increase 
in   colonial   manufactures.      Enterprising    men    began   to 
make  silk  and  other  goods,  which  Great  Britain  had  for 
bidden  to  be  manufactured  in  the  colonies   (§  67,  note); 
and   the   different   colonies    encouraged    them    by   voting 
money  to  help  them.     During  the  Revolution,  the  colonists 
even  began  to  make  powder  and  other  munitions  of  war. 

187.  In  Literature  the  productions  of  the  colonists  were 
as  yet  almost   entirely  political;    and  in   this   field   their 


1775]  SLAVERY  117 

work  was  certainly  admirable.  Their  addresses  and 
petitions,  their  declarations  of  rights,  and  their  declaration 
of  independence  (§  206)  cannot  well  be  read  without  being 
admired.  Poetry,  music,  and  the  drama  hardly  existed ; 
but  two  fine  painters,  Copley  and  West,  had  appeared. 
New  colleges  were  springing  up  :  Rhode  Island  College 
(now  Brown  University)  was  founded  at  Providence  in 
1764;  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  in  1769; 
and  Queen's  College  (now  Rutgers  College),  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  1770.  There  were  but  14  news 
papers  in  all  New  England,  4  in  New  York,  9  in  Penn 
sylvania,  2  each  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
Carolina,  3  in  South  Carolina,  and  I  in  Georgia:  37  in 
all. 

188.  Slavery  had  grown  much  faster  in  the  South  than 
in  the  North.      In  New  England  there  were  signs  that  it 
would   not   last   much    longer;    and   some   of  the   courts 
began  to  declare  it  illegal,  and  to  give  the  slaves  their 
freedom.      Vermont  (§  65)  never  permitted  slavery.     The 
first  Continental   Congress  recommended  that  the  slave- 
trade  should  be  stopped,  and  all  the  colonies  agreed;  but 
this  was  not  because  the  Congress  wanted  to  put  an  end 
to   slavery,   but    because   the  American   slave-trade   was 
particularly  profitable  to   British  merchants.      For  a  time 

— perhaps  all  through  the  Revolution — no  slaves  were 
brought  into  the  country.  As  soon  as  the  Revolution 
was  ended,  commerce  revived,  and  the  slave-trade  with 
it ;  but  by  this  time  it  was  confined  to  the  Southern  States, 
for  the  Northern  States  had  forbidden  it  for  themselves.1 

189,  The  Leading  Events  of  this  twelve  years'  struggle 
against  England  were  as  follows : 

1  In  1715?  there  were  13,000  negro  slaves  north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's 
line  (§87),  and  47,000  south:  60,000  in  all.  In  1775,  there  were  50,000 
north,  and  450,000  south  :  500,000  in  all. 


n8  COLONIAL  RESISTANCE  [1763 

1 763-6  :  Infernal  Taxation §  163 

1764:  Parliament  claims  the  right  to  tax  the 

colonies 163 

1765  :  The  Stamp  Act  passed 164 

Stamp-Act  Congress 166 

1 766  :  The  Stamp  Act  repealed 167 

1 767-73  :   Commercial  Taxation 168 

1767:  Parliament  lays  taxes  on  commerce.  .  .  169 
The  Americans  give  up   trade  in   the 

articles  taxed 170 

1768:  Boston  occupied  by  British  troops.  ...  171 

1770:  The  Boston  massacre 171 

The  taxes  removed,  except  that  on  tea.  173 

1772  :  Burning  of  the  Gaspce 171 

1773:  Tea  sent  to  America 174 

The  colonies  refuse  to  receive  it 174 

Boston  Tea  Party 174 

1 774-5  :   Legislation 175 

1774:  Boston  Port  Act;   Massachusetts  Act; 
Transportation    Act;    and    Quebec 

Act  passed 175 

First  Continental  Congress 177 

The  Association : 177 

1775  :        War 181 

1775:  Lexington  and  Concord  fights 181 

Siege  of  Boston 183 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  English  politics,   1763-1775. 

2.  Why  did  not  all  the  English  colonies  in  America  oppose 
Parliament  and  the  king  ? 

3.  Committees  of  correspondence. 

4.  Parliamentary  interference,  prior  to  1763,  with  trade  and 
manufactures  in  the  colonies. 

5.  New  England  and  the  slave-trade. 

6.  The    organization    of   resistance  in   a    particular    colony 
(e.g. ,  New  Hampshire). 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's    Select    Charters  gives  a  form  of  a 

writ  of  assistance  (No.    53),   and  the  texts  of  the  Stamp  Act 
(No.    57),  Quartering  Acts  (Nos.  58  and   71),   the  resolutions 


I775J  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  119 

of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  (No.  59),  the  Declaratory  Act  of 
1766  (No.  60),  the  Townshend  Acts  (Nos.  61-64),  the  Massa 
chusetts  circular  letter  (No.  65),  the  Virginia  resolutions  of 
1769  and  1773  (Nos.  66  and  67),  the  acts  of  1774  (Nos. 
68-70),  and  the  "Declaration  and  Resolves"  and  "Associa 
tion"  of  the  first  Continental  Congress  (Nos.  72  and  73). 
Numerous  miscellaneous  documents  are  collected  in  Niles's 
Principles  and  Acts  of  the  Revolution.  The  collected  writings 
of  American  statesmen,  especially  Washington,  Franklin,  John 
Adams,  and  Jefferson,  are  of  the  highest  importance. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — Most, of  the  works  on  the  Revolution 
enumerated  under  Chapter  IX.  deal  also  with  the  period 
covered  by  this  chapter.  The  following  are  of  especial  im 
portance  here:  Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic;  Weeden's 
Economic  and  Social  History  of  New  England;  Barry's  Massa 
chusetts;  Hutchinson's  Massachusetts;  Lecky's  England  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century;  lives  of  John  Adams  by  C.  F.  Adams  and 
Morse;  Wells's  Samuel  Adams;  Tudor's  Otis;  Qu'mcy' s  fosi'ah 
Quincy;  Morse's  Franklin;  lives  of  Patrick  Henry  by  W.  W. 
Henry  and  M.  C.  Tyler,  of  Jefferson  by  Randall  and  Morse, 
and  of  Washington  by  Marshall,  Irving,  Sparks,  and  Lodge. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — See  under  Chapter  IX.,  post. 


„       CHAPTER    IX 
THE    REVOLUTION 
1775-1781 

190.  Rise  of  the  Republic — The  history  of  the  United 
States,   as   a  separate  country,   begins  with    the  fight  at 
Lexington,  though  the  name   of  the  United  Colonies  was 
kept  up  until  July  4,  1776  (§  205).      During  this  period  of 
more  than  a  year,  the  colonists  still  claimed  to  be  loyal 
subjects  of  the  king,  fighting  only  against  the  attempts  of 
Parliament  to   govern  them  by  its  own  will.      But,  as  the 
king  refused  to  govern  the  colonies  with  the  aid  of  their 
Congress,  the  Congress  did  all  the  governing  itself,  and 
the    colonies    became    at    once,    in     reality,    a    separate 
country. 

191.  The  Second  Continental  Congress  met  at  Philadel 
phia,  May  10,   1775.      The  business  of  the  First  Congress 
(in  1774)  had  been  only  to  pass  resolutions:   the  Second 
Congress   had  to   make  laws.      Men  like  to  feel  that  they 
are   acting   under    some    lawful    authority,    and    all    such 
authority  in  the  colonies  had  almost  disappeared.      Most 
of  the  royal  governors  had  withdrawn  as  soon   as   open 
fighting    began,    and    no     new    governments    had    been 
formed.       Congress    became,    by   common    consent,    the 
general  governing  body  of  the  country.      It  adopted  the 
forces  around  Boston   as   a  continental  army,   appointed 
Washington  to  command  it,  and  raised  money  to  support 
the  war.      Toward  the  end  of  the  year,  it  began  to  form 

120 


1775]        THE  SECOND   CONTINENTAL    CONGRESS 


121 


a  navy  (§  240).  At  first,  therefore,  the  war  was  between 
the  British  Parliament  and  the  American  Congress,  both 
acknowledging  the  same  king.  When  it  was  found  that 
the  king  sided  altogether  with  the  Parliament,  Congress 


CARPENTER'S  HALL.  WHERE  THE  FIRST  CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS  MET. 

made  war  on  the  king  also,  and,  in    1776,  declared  the 
colonies    independent   of  him    as    well    as   of  Parliament 

(§  205). 

192.  Membership  of  the  Congress. — The  Second  Con 
tinental  Congress  was  a  body  of  distinguished  and  able 
men.  Each  colony  had  chosen  some  of  its  strongest  men 
as  delegates.  Among  the  delegates  from  Massachusetts 
were  John  Adams,  one  of  the  best  qualified  men  in  the 
country  for  public  service,  and  afterward  President  of  the 
United  States ;  Samuel  Adams,  a  trusted  popular  leader 
and  an  earnest  advocate  of  independence ;  and  John  Han 
cock,  a  Boston  merchant,  whose  bold  signature  heads  the 
list  of  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Con- 


122  THE  RESOLUTION  [17 75 

necticut  was  represented  by  Roger  Sherman  and  Oliver 
Ellsworth.  New  York  sent  John  Jay,  afterward  chief 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Pennsylvania  sent  Robert 
Morris,  whose  skilful  management  later  earned  him  the 
title  of  the  "financier  of  the  Revolution,"  and  Benjamin 
Franklin.  From  Virginia  came  Patrick  Henry,  already 
known  as  an  orator  and  enthusiastic  opponent  of  Great 
Britain ;  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  was  later  to  write  the 
Declaration  of  Independence ;  and  George  Washington. 

193.*  Leading  Men. — The  leading  men  in  the  Congress 
were  Franklin,  Washington,  and  Jefferson.  Franklin  was 
born  in  Boston,  but  went  to  Philadelphia  early  in  life,  and 
soon  built  up  a  successful  business  as  a  printer.  He  was 
self-taught,  but  became  widely  known  through  his  writings 
and  scientific  investigations.  His  "Poor  Richard's 
Almanac,"  published  annually,  and  filled  with  proverbs 
embodying  sound  practical  advice  in  pithy  phrases,  made 
his  name  a  household  word  in  America.  He  was  now  a 
man  of  independent  means,  had  been  long  in  public  life, 
and  had  represented  the  colonies  in  England  at  the  time 
of  the  Stamp  Act;  and  his  experience  and  judgment  made 
him  invaluable  to  the  American  cause.  He  was,  more 
over,  a  consummate  diplomatist,  and  much  of  the  success 
of  the  Revolution  was  due  to  the  skill  with  which  Franklin 
represented  the  country  abroad.  Washington  was  not 
yet  so  widely  known  as  Franklin.  He  was  now  somewhat 
over  forty  years  of  age,  and  was  soon  to  show,  on  a 
larger  scale,  the  military  ability  which  he  had  first  ex 
hibited  in  the  resistance  to  the  French  twenty  years 
before.  Washington  was  not  a  ready  speaker,  but  he 
knew  how  to  choose  the  best  men  for  important  positions, 
to  bear  patiently  with  their  imperfections,  and  to  follow 
the  wisest  course  in  the  midst  of  conflicting  and  hostile 
advice.  Above  all,  he  was  absolutely  unselfish,  refused 


1775] 


LEADING   MEN 


123 


all  suggestions  of  merely  personal  gain,  and  cared  only 
for  the  good  of  his  country.  Jefferson  was  a  poor  speaker, 
but  an  effective  writer,  and  his  influence  increased  rapidly 
as  time  went  on.  Men  liked  to  have  him  write  out  what 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


they  had  decided  upon,  but  they  had  not  yet  come  to  set 
so  much  store  by  his  judgment  on  public  questions. 
Jefferson  was  an  advocate  of  what  were  then  regarded  as 
extreme  democratic  opinions,  under  which  the  goodness 


I24 


THE  RESOLUTION 


[ms 


of  laws  was  tested  largely  by  the  liberty  they  left  to  the 
individual ;  but  he  was  not  to  have  an  opportunity  to 
apply  those  ideas  on  a  large  scale  until  he  became  Presi 
dent,  in  1801. 

(i)  At  Boston. 

194.  British  Reinforcements,  under  three  generals, 
Howe,  Clinton,  and  Burgoyne,  arrived  at  Boston  soon 
after  the  fight  at  Lex 
ington.  Gage  had 
now  about  10,000 
men.  These  held  the 
town  of  Boston,  which 
lay  on  a  peninsula  occupying  the 
middle  of  the  harbor.  Around 
them,  on  the  hills  of  the  mainland, 
there  were  about  twice  their  num 
ber  of  undisciplined  and  poorly 
armed  Americans,  without  cannon  and  almost  without 
food.  Just  north  of  Boston,  another  peninsula  ran  out  into 
the  harbor.  On  it  there  were  several  hills  overlooking 
the  city,  and  the  Americans  determined  to  seize  and 
fortify  one  of  them,  called  Bunker  Hill.  About  a  thousand 
men,  under  Colonel  Prescott,  were  sent  into  the  peninsula 
for  this  on  a  suitable  night.  For  some  reason,  they 
passed  beyond  Bunker  Hill  and  seized  Breed's  Hill,  much 
closer  to  Boston.1 

195.  The  American  Fortification  was  continued  silently 
and  swiftly  through  the  night.  In  the  morning  of  June 
J7>  T775'  tne  British  in  Boston  woke  to  see  a  long  line  of 
intrenchments  running  across  the  hill  above  them,  and  an 
American  working-party  busily  strengthening  it.  For  a 

1  Breed's  Hill  is  now  usually  called  Bunker  Hill,   and  the  Bunker  Hill 
monument  is  erected  upon  it. 


THE  REVOLUTION  IN  NEW 
ENGLAND. 


775] 


BUNKER  HILL 


125 


time,  the  British  frigates  in  the  harbor  kept  up  a  slow  and 
distant  fire,  to  which  the  working-party  paid  no  attention ; 
but  at  noon  the  work  was  stopped,  for  the  British  troops 
were  coming  across  the  harbor  in  boats.  Three  thousand 
well  armed,  uniformed,  and  drilled  soldiers,  who  had 
never  known  defeat  in  equal  fight,  landed  near  Charles- 
town,  under  General  Howe.  Here  they  formed  at  the 
waterside,  and  in  a  long,  steady  line  began  to  move 
upward  to  scatter  the  1,500  farmers  who  were  watching 
them  from  the  top  of  the  hill.  From  the  roofs  of  the 
houses  in  Boston  the  townspeople  were  watching,  while 
the  rest  of  the  British  army  were  anxious  to  see  ' '  whether 
the  Yankees  would  fight. ' '  Most  of  the  watchers  ex 
pected  to  see  the  untrained  soldiers  in  the  fort  fire  a  few 
hasty  shots  at  a  safe  distance,  and  run. 

196.  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill — The  fort  held  a  threatening 
silence  until  the  attacking  column  was  within  150  feet. 
Then,  at  the  word,  came  a 
sheet  of  fire  from  the  marks 
men  within ;  and,  when  the 
smoke  lifted,  part  of  the 
British  line  was  lying  dead 
or  wounded,  and  the  rest 
were  retreating  down  the 
hill.  The  British  were  not 
cowards :  the  officers  re 
formed  the  line  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hill,  and,  after  setting 
fire  to  Charlestown,  again 
advanced  to  the  attack. 
Again  there  was  a  steady 
silence  in  the  fort,  a  close  and  deadly  fire,  and  the  British 
line  was  driven  down  the  hill  again.  The  British  then 
moved  up  the  hill  for  the  third  time.  The  powder  in  the 


SCALE  OF  MILES 

BATTLE  OF  BUNKER  HII.L. 


126  THE  RESOLUTION  [1776 

fort  was  now  gone,  and  the  garrison  fought  for  a  few 
minutes  with  gunstocks  and  stones  against  the  British 
bayonets.  But  such  a  struggle  was  hopeless,  and  the 
British  gained  the  fort.  They  were  too  tired  to  pursue 
the  garrison,  who  escaped  to  the  mainland.1 

197.  Washington,  early  in  July,  took  command  of  the 
Americans  who  had  gathered  around  Boston,  and  began 
the  difficult  task  of  forming  them  into 
a  real  army.  Supplies  of  powder,  arms, 
and  other  materials  of  war  grew  more 
abundant,  as  the  American  privateers 
(§  240)  captured  supply-ships  from  Eng 
land.  But  the  men  were  not  willing 
to  remain  in  camp  for  a  long  time,  and 

UNION    FLAG. 

had  been  so  accustomed  to  independence 
that  they  disliked  strict  military  discipline.  This  difficulty 
lasted  throughout  the  war,  and  sometimes  drove  Washing 
ton  almost  to  despair.  In  the  spring  of  1776,  however, 
he  had  formed  something  like  an  arm}'.  The  color  of  its 
uniform,  when  it  could  afford  one,  was  blue  and  yellow 
(or  buff),  and  these  were  the  "rebel  "  colors  throughout 
the  Revolution.  Usually,  however,  the  soldiers  wore 
hunting-shirts,  dyed  brown,  as  the  best  available  substi 
tute.  The  flag  was  unfurled  for  the  first  time  on  New- 
Year's  Day,  1776,  at  Cambridge.  It  had  the  stripes  as 
at  present,  and  the  double  cross  of  the  British  flag  instead 
of  the  stars.  The  stars  were  added  in  1777. 2 

1  The  American  loss  was  449,  out  of  1,500  men  in  the  battle.     Among  the 
killed  was  General  Joseph  Warren,  a   Boston  physician,  one  of  the  leading 
Whigs  of   Massachusetts.       The  British  loss  was   1,054,   one  third  of  their 
number.      This  tremendous  loss  had  its  effect  all  through  the  war,  for  the 
British  regulars  would  no  longer  fight  except  in  the  open  field.      On  several 
occasions,  American  armies  were  relieved  from  dangerous  positions  because 
the  British  did  not  like  to  attack  intrenchments. 

2  At  first  there  had  been  flags  of  all  kinds,  the  commonest  having  a  rattle 
snake  upon  it,  with  the  motto,  "  Don't  tread  on  me/'     (See  p.  127.) 


1776] 


OPERATIONS  IN  CANADA 


127 


RATTLESNAKE  FLAG. 


198.  British  Evacuation  of  Boston. — Washington's  new 
army  was  now  ready  to  renew  the  attempt  which  had 
been  made  at  Bunker 
Hill.  Thistimeapenin- 

^TTjgCUUWtfT 


sula  on  the  south  side 
of  Boston,  called  Dor 
chester  Heights,  was  se 
lected.  It  was  silently 
seized  by  night,  and 
before  Howe,  who  had 
succeeded  Gage,  could 
attack  it,  the  fortifica 
tions  had  been  made 
very  strong.  The  Brit 
ish  commander  therefore  decided  not  to  attack  them,  but 
to  leave  Boston.  He  embarked  his  men  on  the  fleet, 
March  17,  and  set  sail  for  Halifax.  The  American  army 
then  entered  the  town.  From  this  time  the  British  made 
hardly  any  serious  effort  to  conquer  New  England ;  and 
for  a  few  months,  until  they  attacked  the  Middle  States, 
there  were  no  longer  any  British  forces  within  the  United 
States  (§  207). 

(2)    Operations  in   Canada. 

199.  Canada,  it  was  hoped,  would  join  the  other 
colonies,  and  the  first  thought  of  the  colonists  was  to 
drive  the  British  troops  out  of  that  province.  The  easiest 
road  into  Canada  was  through  northeastern  New  York, 
by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  and  bake  George.  On  this 
road  the  British  held  the  strong  fort  of  Ticonderoga ;  but 
this  was  taken  by  surprise,  three  weeks  after  the  fight  at 
Lexington,  by  Ethan  Allen  and  a  small  party  of  men 
from  Vermont.  The  captured  stores  were  sent  to  the 
army  before  Boston,  where  they  were  very  welcome. 


128 


THE  RESOLUTION 


l>775 


200.  The  Invasion  of  Canada  was  now  begun.      During 
the  summer  of  1775,  American  troops,   led  by  Schuyler 

and  Montgomery,  two 
New  York  officers, 
pushed  into  Canada. 
They  captured  Montreal 
in  November.  Here  they 
were  joined  by  fresh 
troops,  under  Benedict 
Arnold,  who  had  forced 
their  way  through  the 
Maine  wilderness,  up  the 
Kennebec  River,  and 
across  into  Canada.  The 
whole  force  now  num 
bered  about  1,000  men, 
and  these  found  Quebec 
In  an  attack  upon  it, 
his  troops  were  beaten 


PHILIP  SCHUYLER. 


too    strong    for    them    (§  150). 

Montgomery    was    killed,    and 

back.1     Arnold  held  the  army   before   Quebec  until  the 

spring  of  1776,  when  the  Americans  were  finally  driven 

out  of  Canada,  back  to  Ticonderoga.      Canada  remained 

a  British  province. 

(3)   /;/  England  and  on  the  Coast. 

201.  The  People  in  England  had  offered  expressions  of 
sympathy  for  the  colonies.  A  number  of  officers  in  the 
army  had  resigned  their  commissions  rather  than  serve  in 
America.  Petitions  against  the  war  had  been  presented 
to  the  king  and  Parliament  from  many  towns.  The  city 
of  London  had  declared  its  abhorrence  of  the  measures 

1  Montgomery  had  been  a  distinguished  British  officer,  but  had  married  and 
settled  in  New  York.  His  bones  were  brought  to  New  York  City  in  1818, 
and  again  buried  with  appropriate  ceremonies. 


1775]  PARLIAMENT  AND    THE   COLONIES  129 

designed  to  oppress  "  our  fellow  subjects  in  the  colonies, 
and  had  begged  the  king  to  change  his  government. 
But  none  of  these  representations  had  any  influence  upon 
those  who  had  power  in  Great  Britain ;  and,  as  the  war 
went  en,  English  expressions  of  sympathy  for  the  colonies 
became  for  a  time  less  frequent. 

202.  Parliament  proposed,   early  in    1775,  that,   if  any 
colony  would  promise  to  lay  taxes  sufficient  to   support  a 
royal  government,  no  Parliamentary  taxes  should  be  im 
posed  on  that  colony.      Edmund   Burke,  in  an  elaborate 
and   eloquent  speech,  pleaded  the  cause  of  the  colonies, 
and  urged  a  return  to  the  old   plan  of  relying  upon  the 
good    will    of  the    assemblies.        But   the    proposition    of 
Parliament,   suggested  by  Lord  North,  was  rejected,  and 
Parliament  was  soon  as  angry  as  the  king.      It  voted  to 
send   25,000    men  to   America;    to  hire  and    send    over 
17,000  soldiers  from  Hesse-Cassel,  in  Germany;1  to  forbid 
all  trade  with  the  colonies  ;   and  to  declare  American  ships 
lawful  prize,   that  is,  to  permit  them  to  be  captured  by 
English  or  foreign  ships.      Congress  answered  by  open 
ing  American  harbors  to  ships  of  all  nations,  and  declar 
ing  British  ships  lawful  prize.      All  this  time,  Congress 
was   declaring  that   it   had   no   desire   for  independence ; 
and  the  different  colonies  were  directing  their  delegates 
not  to  vote  for  a  separation.      This  state  of  things  could 
not  last  long.      The   king's  loyal   subjects  could  not  go 
on  shooting  the  king's  soldiers  without  soon  learning  to 
detest  the  king  himself. 

203.  Along  the  Coast,   where  the    British  frigates   com 
manded    the    ocean,    the    exposed    towns    were    harshly 
treated.      Any  refusal  by  the  people  to  supply  the  ships 

1  These  hired  soldiers,  called  Hessians,  who  could  speak  no  English,  were 
particularly  hated  by  the  colonists,  and  were  accused  of  numberless  cruelties 
during  the  war. 


130  THE  REVOLUTION  [1776 

with  provisions  was  likely  to  be  answered  by  a  cannonade. 
In  1775,  the  towns  of  Gloucester,  Bristol,  and  Falmouth 
(now  Portland)  were  bombarded  and  destroyed ;  and  early 
in  1776,  Norfolk  met  the  same  fate.  Charleston  was 
attacked,  June  28,  by  a  squadron  of  ten  British  ships, 
with  2,500  troops  on  board,  under  General  Clinton. 
They  were  beaten  off  by  the  South  Carolina  troops  under 
Moultrie,  one  of  the  ships  being  burned.1  The  fleet  then 
sailed  for  New  York,  and  the  Southern  States  for  nearly 
three  years  felt  little  of  the  war 

(4)   Independence. 

204.  The  Desire  for  Independence  began  to  grow  rapidly 
in  the  spring  of  1776.      The  king  was  wholly  on  the  side 
of  the  enemies  of  the  colonists,  had  declared  the  colonists 
to   be    rebels,    and  had    allowed  his  ships   to    burn    their 
towns.      The  colonists  were  therefore  beginning  to  forget 
that  they  were  his  loyal   subjects.      Just  at  this  time,    a 
pamphlet  called  Common  Sense  was  published,  written  by 
Thomas  Paine:   it  urged  these  considerations  with  great 
force  and  effect.      The  first  strong  sign  of  the  change  of 
feeling    was   a    recommendation    by   Congress,    in    May, 
1776,  that  the  different  colonies  should  form  governments 
of  their  own,  in  place  of  those  which  had  been  overthrown. 
This  was  done,  and  the  colonies  now  took  the  name  of 
States. 

205.  Independence. — Virginia  led  the  way  in  instructing 
her  delegates  in  Congress  to  vote  for  independence,  and 
the  other  States  gradually  followed.      June  8,  a  resolution 
that  the  colonies  were   free  and  independent  States  was 
offered  in  Congress;    and   a  committee   of  five   was   ap- 

1  The  name  of  Fort  Sullivan  was  changed  to  Fort  Moultrie  in  honor  of  the 
commander.  One  of  the  heroes  of  the  defence  was  Sergeant  Jasper,  who 
climbed  the  parapet  during  the  hottest  of  the  fire,  and  restored  the  flagstaff, 
which  had  been  shot  away. 


i776] 


THE  DECLARATION   OF  INDEPENDENCE 


LIBERTY  BELL. 


pointed  to  draw  up  a  fitting  declaration.  The  com 
mittee  finished  its  work 
June  28.  July  2,  the  reso 
lution  was  adopted;  and 
the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence  was  adopted  July 
4,  17/6.  The  United 
Colonies  were  now  the 
United  States,  claiming  to 
be  independent  of  both  king 
and  Parliament. 

206.  The   Declaration  of 
Independence  is  in  Appen 
dix    I.      It   was   drawn   up 
by   Jefferson.       The    other 
members  of  the  committee, 
John      Adams,      Franklin, 

Sherman,  and  Livingston,  did  little  of  the  work  ;  but  Adams 
did  most  of  the  speaking  in  its  favor,  as  Jefferson  was  not 
a  good  public  speaker.  Parliament  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Declaration,  except  as  a  body  of  men  whom  the  king 
had  aided  in  ' '  acts  of  pretended  legislation  ' '  over  the 
colonies.  The  new  idea  in  the  Declaration  is  that  gov 
ernments  are  to  be  made  and  changed  by  the  people; 
elsewhere,  up  to  that  time,  it  was  held  that  the  people 
were  bound  to  obey  the  government,  as  long  as  it  pro 
tected  them.  The  success  of  the  American  Revolution 
aided  to  bring  about  the  French  Revolution  in  1789  and 
the  following  years.  The  same  idea  now  controls  every 
government  whose  people  care  to  assert  it. 

(5)   In  the  Middle  States  :  1776-78. 

207.  The   Middle    States    were    now,    for    nearly   three 
years,  to  be  the  theatre  of  the  war.      For  the  time,  Great 


132 


THE  RESOLUTION 


Britain  had  given  up  New  England,  because  of  its  stormy 
coast  in  winter,  and  the  stubborn  temper  of  its  people. 
The  Southern  States  were  not  yet  rich  enough  to  be  a 
great  prize.  The  Middle  States  seemed  to  be  a  better 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL  IN  1776. 


point  of  attack.  Their  people  were  of  mixed  races,  not 
all  of  one  blood  as  in  New  England.  Many  of  them  were 
tenants  and  cared  little  about  taxes,  while  the  owners  of 
great  tracts  of  land,  like  most  rich  and  comfortably  settled 
people,  disliked  sudden  changes,  and  were  apt  to  sympa- 


1 776] 


IN    THE  MIDDLE  STATES 


'33 


thize  with  the  government. 
Most  of  the  Tories  were  in 
the  Middle  States,  and  the 
British  could  expect  assistance 
from  them.  Above  all,  the 
British  hoped,  by  means  of 
their  fleet,  to  control  the 
harbor  of  New  York  and  the 
Hudson  River,  thus  openin 
up  the  road  to  Canada  (§  1 99), 
and  at  the  same  time,  by 


forts  and  garrisons  along 
the  river,  cutting  off  New 
England  from  the  rest  of 
the  Union.  Late  in 
June,  1776,  a  British 
army  from  Halifax,  under 
General  Howe,  landed 
on  Staten  Island,  near 
New  York  City;  and  the 
serious  part  of  the  war  began.  The  fighting  in  New 


134  THE  REVOLUTION  [J776 

t 
England  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  and  in  the 

South   at  the   end   of  it,    is  interesting.;  but  the   decisive 
struggle  was  in  the  Middle  States  from  1776  until  1778. 

208.  Washington   had   hurried  to    New  York   with   his 
troops  immediately  after  the  evacuation  of  Boston  (§  198), 
and  had  begun  to  erect  fortifications.      He  had  succeeded 
in  getting  togerher  about  20,000  men.      But  they  were 
poorly   armed,    equipped,    and    drilled,    and    were   to   be 
beaten  again  and  again  by  the   British  before  they  could 
be  trained  to  win  victories  in  their  turn.      The  great  dis 
tinction  of  Washington,  in  the  war,  is  the  skill  with  which 
he  avoided  a  battle  with  the  whole   British  force,  and  the 
patient  courage  with  which  he  submitted  to  being  beaten 
until  his  army  was  formed  and  trained. 

209.  Battle   of   Long   Island. — During    the     next    two 
months  of  1776,    Howe's  force   was   increased    to   about 
30,000    well-trained    soldiers.       With    half   of   these    he 
crossed  to  Long  Island,   where   about   5,000  Americans 
were   posted  near   Brooklyn,   then    only  a   ferry  station. 
Howe  nearly  surrounded   them,  and  completely  defeated 
them  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island    (August  27,    1776). 
Only  3,000  of  the  Americans  escaped  to  Brooklyn,  where 
a  fort  had  been  built.      For  two  days  the  British  hesitated 
about  attacking  the  fort,  and  then  a  heavy  fog  enabled 
Washington  to  bring  the   garrison    over    to    New  York. 
Howe    followed     slowly    to     New     York.       Washington 
retreated  before  him,  skirmishing  at  Harlem  and  White 
Plains,  thus  reaching  the  hills  east  of  the  present  town  of 
Peekskill,  where  he  halted  and  faced  about.     Again  Howe 
refused   to   attack   him,   but  moved   back   to   enter   New 
Jersey.      On  his  way  he  captured  Fort  Washington,  now 
in  the  upper  part  of  New  York  City,  where  Washington 
had  left  3,000  men.1 

1  It  was  during  this  retreat  that  the  British  captured  and  hanged  a  young 


1776]  WASHINGTON'S  RETREAT  135 

210.  Washington's  Retreat. — Washington    left  General 
Charles  Lee  to  hold  the  position  near  Peekskill,  and  with 
5,000  men  crossed  the  Hudson  River,  and  moved  down 
to   a   point   nearly   opposite   New  York  City.      Early   in 
December,   the  British,   under   Lord  Cornwallis,   crossed 
the   Hudson  River.      Washington    retreated  before  them 
through  New  Brunswick,  Princeton,  and  Trenton,  across 
New  Jersey,  and  finally  put  the  Delaware  River  between 
him    and    his    pursuers.      The    cold   weather,    the    hasty 
retreat,   and  other  discouragements  decreased  his  forces 
so  much  that  he  had  but  3,000  men ;  and  the  British  were 
confident  that  they  would  "  catch  him  and  end  the  war  " 
as  soon  as  the  Delaware  River  should  freeze  over  so  that 
they  could  cross.1 

211.  Congress    abandoned    Philadelphia    and    went    to 
Baltimore.      Before  leaving,   it  gave  Washington  almost 
supreme   power,   authorizing   him   to  seize   property  and 
arrest  persons  as  he  should  judge  best.      There  was  terror 
everywhere  through  the  Middle  States,  and  many  persons 
hastened  to  put  themselves  under  British  protection  and 
become  again  loyal  subjects  of  the  king.     But  Washington 
had  not  lost  courage,  and  he  revived  the  courage  of  others 
by  an  unexpected  blow. 

212.  Trenton   and   Princeton. — On    Christmas   night   of 
1 776,  Washington  recrossed  the  Delaware  River  into  New 
Jersey  with   2,500  picked  men,  and  before  daylight,  De 
cember  26,   he  had  surrounded  Trenton.      The  garrison, 
1,000  Hessian  soldiers,  was  surprised  and  captured  with 
the  loss  of  but  four    Americans.      Washington  took   his 

American  officer,  Captain  Nathan  Hale.  He  was  a  spy,  like  Andre  (§  238), 
but  was  not  treated  as  was  Andre.  He  was  not  given  time  to  write  a  letter, 
or  prepare  for  death,  and  was  shown  no  sympathy. 

1  Washington  summoned  Lee  from  Peekskill  to  his  help,  but  Lee  was 
treacherous,  moved  slowly,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  captured  in  New 
Jersey. 


136 


THE  REVOLUTION 


[1776 


prisoners  to  Philadelphia  and  returned  to  Trenton.  As 
the  news  spread,  the 
British  forces  in  New 
Jersey  started  for 
Trenton,  w  here 
Washington  was  for 
the  moment  hemmed 
in  between  his  ene 
mies  and  the  Dela- 


|  CAPTURE  «t  EVACUATION 


ware  River.  Another  quick  movement  saved  him. 
During  the  night  he  broke  camp,  marched  around  the 
British  forces  to  Princeton  in  their  rear,  and  there,  January 
3,  1777,  defeated  and  scattered  three  British  regiments. 
Cornwallis  instantly  turned  and  pursued  him.  But 
Washington  was  soon  safe  in  the  mountains  of  northern 
New  Jersey,  at  Morristown,  where  the  British  did  not 
venture  to  attack  him. 

213.  Winter  Quarters. — The  American  army  passed  the 
winter    of    1776-7    in    a    long    line    stretching   from    the 


776] 


THE   WINTER   OF  1776-7 


137 


Hudson  River  to  the  Delaware,  as  the  mountains  run. 
The  British  line  at  first  faced  that  of  Washington  in  a 
corresponding  line  through  the  flat  country  below ;  but 
the  country  people  were  so  hostile  that  the  whole  British 
force  gradually  drew  in  around  New  Brunswick  and  near 
Sandy  Hook.  The  winter  thus  passed  without  much  ad 
vantage  to  either  side,  except  that  the  British  had  failed 
to  capture  Philadelphia. 

214.  During  the   Winter,  plundering   expeditions  were 
sent  out  by  the  British  from   New  York  to  the  towns  in 


MARQUIS  DE  LA  FAYETTE. 


the  neighborhood.      In  December,  1776,  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,   was  captured  by  the   British,    and    was    held    for 


I38  THE  RESOLUTION  [1777 

three  years.  In  April,  1777,  an  expedition  landed  at 
Norwalk,  Connecticut,  marched  inland,  and  burned  the 
supplies  at  Danbury.  A  number  of  officers  from  the  con 
tinent  of  Europe  crossed  the  ocean  during  the  year  to 
enter  the  American  army.  The  most  important  of  these 
was  the  Marquis  de  La  Fayette,  a  youth  of  nineteen,  who 
had  secretly  fitted'  out  a  ship  and  sailed  for  America 
against  the  orders  of  the  French  Government.  Others 
were  the  Baron  de  Kalb,  an  experienced  German  officer; 
Kosciusko  and  Pulaski,  two  Polish  patriots;  and  Conway, 
a  troublesome  Irish  officer  (§223).  In  1778  came  the 
Baron  von  Steuben,  a  veteran  German  officer,  who  first 
instructed  the  American  troops  in  the  tactics  used  in 
Europe. 

215.  Howe  tried  in  vain  to  draw  the  Americans  out  of 
their  stronghold  in   northern    New  Jersey.      He  did  not 
venture   to    attack    Philadelphia    by   marching    his    army 
across  New  Jersey  in   front  of  the   Americans,    lest  they 
should  strike  his  army  in  flank  on   the  march.      In  July, 
1777,  he  embarked    18,000  men  on   transports  at  Staten 
Island,  and  put  out  to  sea,  leaving  a  sufficient  garrison  to 
hold  New  York  City.      No  one  knew  where  he  was  going, 
and  Washington  was  compelled  to  wait  in   New  Jersey 
until  he  heard  that  the  British  vessels  had  been  seen  in 
Chesapeake   Bay.      He  then   hurried  his    army  to  Phila 
delphia  to  defend  that  city.      Ho\ve  sailed  up  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  landed  near  Elkton.      He  avoided  the  Delaware 
River,  because  the  Americans   had  filled  it  with  obstruc 
tions. 

216.  Brandywine   and   Germantown. — Between    Elkton 
and  Philadelphia,  the  Brandywine  River  crosses  the  road. 
Here,  at  Chad's  Ford,  Washington  met  Howe,  and  was 
defeated  with  a  loss  of  1,200  men.      But  the  American 
army  did  better  fighting  than  it  had  yet  done ;  and,  though 


1777]  BOURGOYNE'S  EXPEDITION  139 

Howe  captured  Philadelphia,  Washington  did  not  hesitate 
to  attack  him  again  at  Germantown  (now  a  part  of  Phila 
delphia).  The  Americans  were  again  repulsed  after  hard 
fighting. 

217.  Winter  Quarters. — The  British  troops  in  Philadel 
phia  enjoyed  every  comfort  which  a  large  city  could  give 
them.       The    Americans    went    into    winter    quarters    at 
Valley  Forge,  a  little  place  on  the  Schuylkill  River,  just 
above  Norristown.      Here  they  passed   a  dreadful  winter, 
half  starved,  poorly  clothed,  and  many  of  them  without 
shoes  to  protect  their  feet  against  the  snow  and  ice.      In 
spite  of  the  horrors  of  the  winter,  Washington  held  his 
army  at  Valley  Forge,  because  it  was  the  best  possible 
position  from  which  to  attack  the  enemy  if  they  should 
move  out  of  Philadelphia  in   any  direction.      In  October, 
J777»   after  a  long  siege  and  hard  fighting,   the   British 
drove  the  Americans   out  of  Forts    Mercer  and  Mifflin, 
opposite  each  other,  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  just 
below  Philadelphia.     Congress  thereupon  fled  to  Lancaster 
and  then  to  York,  again  leaving  Washington  in  almost 
supreme  command.      But  things  were  not  quite  so  dark 
as  during  the  previous  winter;  for,  while  Washington  had 
been   fighting  around  Philadelphia,  a  whole  British  army 
had  been  captured  at  Saratoga  in  northeastern  New  York 

(§  222). 

(6)  Burgoync*  s  Expedition,  7777. 

218.  The  Hudson  River  was  of  great  importance   as  a 
waterway   (with  Lake  Champlain)  to  Canada,   and   as  a 
dividing  line  between  New  England  and  the  other  States 
(§  207).     The  British  had  found  Washington's  position  on 
the  Hudson,  near  Peekskill,  so  strong  that  they  could  not 
capture  it  from  the  south :   they  were  now  to  try  it  from 


MO  THE  REVOLUTION  [1777 

the  north.  During-  the  summer  of  1777,  while  Howe  was 
getting-  ready  to  sail  for  Philadelphia,  Gen.  John  Bur- 
goyne  was  moving  from  Canada  to  Lake  Champlain  with 
an  army  of  about  10,000  men.  Of  these,  7,000  were 


GEN.  JOHN  BURGOYNE. 


regular  troops  which  he  had  brought  from  England,  and 
the  rest  Canadians  and  Indians.  In  July,  he  reached 
Ticonderoga,  which  he  captured  without  difficulty. 

219.  Schuyler,  the  American  general  (§  200),  had  but 
4,000  men,  and  could  only  retreat  through  Skenesborough, 


1777] 


FORT  SCHUYLER  AND  BENNINGTON 


141 


toward  Albany.  But  he  did  so  slowly,  destroying 
the  bridges  behind  him,  fell 
ing  trees  across  the  roads, 
and  delaying  the  passage  of 
the  British  as  much  as  possi 
ble.  Finally,  he  took  up  a 
position  on  some  islands  •  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk 
River,  where  it  empties  into 
the  Hudson.  Here  both 
armies  halted  for  a  time. 
Schuyler  was  waiting  for  re 
inforcements.  B  u  r  g  o  y  n  e 
thought  Schuyler 's  position 
too  strong  to  be  attacked, 
and  was  also  searching  for 
provisions,  of  which  he  was 
now  in  need. 

220.  Fort  Schuyler  and 
Bennington.  —  Burgoyne  had 
sent  a  detachment  to  the 
west,  to  capture  Fort  Schuyler 
(now  the  city  of  Rome) .  The 
detachment  routed  a  militia 
force  at  Oriskany;  but  the 
garrison  of  Fort  Schuyler  held 
out  stoutly  until  Arnold,  with 
an  American  detachment, 
arrived  and  drove  the  British 
back  to  Canada  in  great 
confusion.  To  the  eastward 

TT  .  , 

was  Vermont,   whose  people 

claimed  to  be  a  State  separate  BURGOYNE'S  EXPEDITION. 

from  New  Hampshire,  though   Congress  as  yet  refused  to 


I42  THE  REVOLUTION  [*777 

recognize  them  (§  65).  Partly  in  the  hope  of  bringing  the 
Vermonters  to  the  British  side,  Burgoyne  sent  Soo  men 
to  Bennington,  under  Colonel  Baum.  They  were  met  by 
Colonel  John  Stark  and  400  militia,  who  entirely  defeated 
them.  Burgoyne  had  sent  reinforcements,  under  Colonel 
Breyman,  to  support  Baum ;  but,  before  they  could  reach 
the  battle-field,  the  Americans  also  received  reinforce 
ments,  under  Colonel  Seth  Warner,  and  the  second 
detachment  was  defeated  as  completely  as  the  first  had 
been.1 

221.  Burgoyne's  Position  was  by  this  time  very  danger 
ous.      His   Indian   allies  were  leaving  him ;    many  of  his 
best  men  had  been  killed  or  captured ;  and  he  was  getting 
short  of  provisions.      The  army  opposed  to  him  was  in 
creasing  :    Congress  was   hurrying  men  up  the  Hudson ; 
and  the  country  militia  were    coming  in  rapidly.      Bur 
goyne,  therefore,  desperately  attempted  to  force  his  way 
through  the  American  army.      He  crossed  the  Hudson, 
and  moved  slowly  down  its  west  bank  toward  the  Mohawk. 
About   the   same    time,    Gates,    who    had   been  sent   by 
Congress  to  take  Schuyler's  place,  felt  strong  enough  to 
move  up  the  west  bank  of  the   Hudson,  away  from  the 
Mohawk. 

222.  Bemis  Heights. — The   two   armies  met   at   Bemis 
Heights,  between  Saratoga  Lake  and  the  Hudson.      The 
battle  which  followed  was  not  decisive:   the  British  held 
the  ground ;  but  the  Americans  had  shown  that  Burgoyne 
could  not  break  through.      He  was  soon  forced  to  make 
a  last  desperate  attempt  to  do  so ;  but  was  defeated  again 
in  the  battle  of  Stillwater  and  gave  up  hope  of  escaping 

1  The  British  loss  was  about  800  in  both  battles;  that  of  the  Americans,  54. 
Stark's  speech  to  his  men,  before  the  battle,  is  said  to  have  been,  "  There 
they  are,  boys  ;  we  must  beat  them  to-day,  or  this  night  Molly  Stark's  a 
widow." 


1777]  SURRENDER   OF  BURGOYNE  143 

southward.  He  now  tried  to  retreat  to  Canada ;  but  the 
triumphant  Americans  pressed  on  and  surrounded  his 
camp.  At  Saratoga,  the  pivotal  point  of  the  war  (§ 
226),  he  surrendered  his  remaining  army  of  6,000  men. 


HORATIO  GATES. 


Clinton,  in  the  mean  time,  was  endeavoring  to  come  to 
Burgoyne's  relief  with  troops  from  New  York  City.  He 
captured  some  of  the  forts  on  the  Hudson,  but  fell  back 
on  learning  of  Burgoyne's  surrender. 

223.  The  Conway  Cabal.— Most  of  the  glory  of  these 
victories  was  due  to  the  careful  preparations  of  Schuyler, 
and  the  personal  daring  of  Arnold ;  but  Gates  took  all  the 
glory  to  himself.  During  the  winter,  an  effort  was  made 


144  THE  REVOLUTION 

by  him  and  a  number  of  leading-  men  in  Congress  and  in 
the  army  to  make  him  commander-in-chief,  instead  of 
Washington.  It  failed  on  account  of  the  general  indigna 
tion  when  it  became  known.  It  is  generally  known  as 
the  "  Conway  cabal,  "  from  the  name  of  one  of  its  leaders 
(§  214) ;  but  there  were  many  others  engaged  in  it,  whose 
share  has  been  more  carefully  covered  over.  Almost  all 
the  meannesses  of  the  Revolution  centred  in  this  ' '  time 
that  tried  men's  souls."  Some  public  men  were  afraid 
that  the  war  would  be  a  failure,  and  wrere  anxious  to  make 
their  peace  with  the  British ;  others  were  jealous  of  one 
another  or  of  the  army ;  others  were  anxious  only  to  make 
money.  Their  selfishness  and  cupidity  made  the  task  of 
Washington  and  the  great  men  of  the  Revolution  far  more 
difficult,  and  the  final  success  far  more  brilliant,  than  if  all 
had  been  patriots. 

(/)   Aid  from  France. 

224.  France  had   been  waiting   since   1763  for  the  time 
when  Great  Britain  should  be  deprived    of  her  territory 
in  North  America  by  the   growing   strength  of  her  colo 
nies.      The  French  Government  was   therefore  not  at  all 
sorry   to    see    the   English  colonies  rebel,    and    supplied 
them  with  arms  and  clothing  from  the  beginning.      But, 
in   order  to    avoid  war  with   Great  Britain,    the   supplies 
were  sent  secretly,    and  the    American  agents  wrere  not 
publicly  recognized.1      Openly,    the   French   Government 
was  on  the  side  of  Great  Britain,  and  declared  that,  as  it 
still  had  colonies  outside  of  North  America,  it  would  not 
encourage  them  to  rebel  by  helping  the  United  States. 

225.  The  Appointment  of  Franklin  as  minister  to  France 
was   a    most    fortunate    selection.      He   W7as    one    of  the 

1  The  first  American  agent  in  France  was  Silas  Deane,  appointed  in  1776. 
Franklin,  Deane,  and  Arthur  Lee  were  made  agents  later  in  1776.  In  1778, 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  made  sole  minister  to  France. 


I778]  AID  FROM  FRANCE  145 

shrewdest  and  most  active  diplomatists  that  ever  served 
any  country;  and  yet  he  took  care  to  seem  only  a  plain 
and  simple  colonist.  His  plain  dress,  his  modest  manners, 
and  his  homely  wit  captivated  the  French,  and  he  became 
the  favorite  of  Paris.  He  brought  French  public  opinion 
over  to  the  side  of  the  colonies ;  but  for  a  long  time  he 
could  get  no  recognition  from  the  government.  When 
other  French  officers  followed  La  Fayette  to  America,  to 
enter  the  army  of  the  United  States,  the  French  Govern 
ment  took  care  that  the  British  ministers  should  know  how 
angry  it  was,  but  it  never  succeeded  in  arresting  the 
officers. 

226.  The  French  Treaty — The  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence   had    convinced   the   French    Government    that   the 
Americans  intended  to  separate  from  Great  Britain  for 
ever  ;  but  it  required  some  further  evidence  that,  if  France 
should  help,  France  would  not  have  to  do  all  the  fighting. 
This  doubt  was  removed   by  Burgoyne's  surrender,  and 
Franklin  was  made  happy  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  between 
France  and  the  United  States,  early  in  1778.      France  was 
to  send  to  the  assistance  of  the  United  States  a  fleet  of  16 
war-vessels,  under  D'Estaing,  and  an  army  of  4,000  men. 

227.  Great  Britain  at  once  declared  war  against  France.1 
She   offered  the   United   States  all  that  the  colonies  had 
asked   three   years   before — freedom    from   taxation,    and 
representation  in  Parliament.     But  the  offer  came  too  late. 
Independence   had   become   the    settled    purpose    of  the 
Americans,    and  the    war   was   to   last   nearly   five   years 
longer  before  Great  Britain  would  consent  to  this. 

228.  The  Battle  of  Monmouth.— We  left  Howe  in  Phila 
delphia,  and  Washington  at  Valley  Forge,  near  Norris- 

1  The  ruling  families  of  France  and  Spain  were  related,  and  Spain  joined 
France  in  the  war  against  Great  Britain  in  1779.  Holland  joined  them  in 
1780,  for  commercial  reasons. 


146  THE  REVOLUTION  [1778 

town.  Clinton  succeeded  Howe  during  the  winter.  When 
the  news  of  the  French  alliance  reached  Clinton,  he  left 
Philadelphia  and  started  across  New  Jersey,  in  order  to 
unite  all  the  British  forces  at  New  York  City  before  the 
French  fleet  and  army  should  arrive.  Washington  hurried 
after  him,  intending  to  keep  him  busy  in  New  Jersey  until 
the  French  should  come.  The  van  of  the  American  army 
overtook  the  British  rear  at  Monmouth  Court-house  (Free 
hold),  in  June,  1778,  and  the  battle  lasted  until  nightfall 
without  any  decided  result.  The  British  drew  off  during 
the  night,  and  embarked  at  Sandy  Hook  for  New  York 
City.1 

229.  Washington    moved    farther    toward     the     north, 
crossed  the  Hudson  above  New  York  City,  and   took  his 
former  position  near  Peekskill.     From  this  point  he  could 
operate  with  effect  if  Clinton  should  make  any  movement 
toward  New  England,  toward  Canada,  or  toward  Phila 
delphia.       These    positions    in    the    Middle    States    were 
maintained  for  the  rest  of  the  war,  the   British  occupying 
New  York  City,  Staten  Island,  and  a  part  of  Long  Island, 
and  Washington's  line  running  from  Peekskill  to  Morris- 
town.     The  British  had  failed  in  the  Middle  States  as  they 
had  done  in  New  England,  and  were  now  about  to  attack 
the  Southern  States. 

(8)   /;/  the  North  after  1778. 

230.  The  French  Fleet  and  Army  arrived  in  July,  1778, 
soon   after   the    British   retreat   from    Philadelphia.      The 

1  General  Charles  Lee,  who  was  afterwards  discovered  to  have  been  a 
traitor,  was  disgraced  at  Monmouth.  Instead  of  attacking,  as  he  was  ordered 
to  do,  he  allowed  his  men  to  retreat.  Washington  spoke  to  him  hastily  and 
passionately  as  he  sent  the  men  back  into  the  fight,  and  Lee  afterward  wrote 
Washington  several  very  disrespectful  letters.  For  this  and  other  acts  of  the 
kind  he  was  dismissed  from  the  service.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  he 
had  been  considered  one  of  the  best  of  the  American  generals. 


I778]  IN   THE  NORTH  AFTER   1778  147 

larger  vessels  were  unable  to  enter  New  York  harbor, 
so  that  no  attack  was  made  on  the  city.  The  French 
therefore  sailed  for  Newport,  which  was  still  in  the  hands 
of  the  British  (§214).  An  American  army,  under  Greene, 
Sullivan,  and  La  Fayette,  was  sent  to  assist  in  the  attack. 
But  a  storm  blew  the  French  fleet  off  the  coast,  and  the 
attack  was  given  up.  The  whole  French  force  then  sailed 
to  the  West  Indies,  where  France  had  possessions  to 
defend.1 

231.  The  British  now  held  but  two  cities  in  the  United 
States,  Newport  and  New  York,  with   Staten   Island  and 
part  of  Long  Island.      These  were  all  the  results  of  their 
three  years'  war  against  the  colonies  alone.      Now  they 
were    struggling    on    every    sea    with    their    old    enemy, 
France,  and  had  still  less  attention  to  spare  for  America. 
As  their  chances  of  success  grew  less,   their  manner   of 
fighting  grew  more  savage.     Plundering  expeditions  along 
the  coast  of  New  England   and   New  Jersey  burned  the 
houses  and  alarmed  the  country,  but  made  no  attempt  to 
hold  any  place. 

232.  The  Horrors  of  War. — Instances  of  the  new  manner 
of  warfare    were    numerous.      Wyoming,    a    Connecticut 
settlement  in  northern  Pennsylvania,  was  captured  in  July, 
1778,  by  a  force  of  British  and  Indians  from  western  New 
York,  commanded   by  a  Tory,  Colonel  John   Butler,  and 
Brant,    an    Indian    chief.      The    inhabitants  were    cruelly 
treated,  and  most  of  the  men  were  killed.      In  November, 
the  village  of  Cherry  Valley,  in   New  York,  met  a  like 
fate.      But  the  Indians  were  now  to  learn  for  the  first  time 

1  The  French  forces  were  never  of  any  great  assistance  to  the  United  States 
until  the  Yorktown  campaign  (§  260).  Whenever  they  were  most  needed, 
they  were  likely  to  be  called  off  to  the  West  Indies,  to  defend  the  French 
colonies  there.  But  France  helped  the  United  States  most  liberally  with 
money  and  supplies. 


148  THE  RESOLUTION  [i?79 

that  a  new  power  had  risen,  and  that  it  could  strike,  and 
strike  hard.  In  the  following  year,  1779,  Congress  sent 
an  army,  under  General  Sullivan,  into  western  New  York, 
to  punish  the  Indians.  Sullivan  killed,  burned,  and 
destroyed  until  he  had  left  the  Indian  country  a  desert. 
The  British  treatment  of  prisoners  at  New  York  was  par 
ticularly  cruel.  The  prisoners  were  placed  in  worn-out 
war-vessels  in  the  East  River,  near  the  Brooklyn  shore, 
and  were  so  scantily  supplied  with  food,  water,  clothing, 
and  medicine  that  they  died  in  great  numbers.  The 
most  notorious  of  these  "hulks,-"  or  prison-ships,  wras  the 
Jersey. 

233.  Paper  Money  was  one  of  the  severest  discourage 
ments  under  which  the  Americans  labored.      It  had  been 
issued  by  Congress  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and 
had  increased   largely  in  amount.      When  a  country  has 
more  paper  money  than   it  can  use  for  business  purposes, 
two  or  more  dollars  are  made  to  do  the  work  of  one,  and 
each    "dollar"    consequently  decreases  in   value.      The 
loss,  of  course,  falls  most  severely  on  the  poor.     By  1778, 
Congress   had   issued   so   much  paper   money  that   eight 
paper  dollars  would  buy  only  as  much  as  one  gold  dollar. 
This  made  the  difficulty  worse,  for  Congress  now  had  to 
issue  eight  times  as  much  paper  money  as  at  first,  and  its 
value  fell  faster  than   ever.      The    British  in   New  York 
counterfeited   it  skilfully,  and  passed  off  their  counterfeits 
on  the  farmers.      Before  the  war  ended,  the  "  continental 
money ' '   was   worthless :    no  one   would  take   it,    and   a 
worthless  thing  was  said  to  be  "  not  worth  a  continental," 
meaning  a  continental  dollar. 

234.  Congress  itself  was  not  so   much  respected  as  at 
first,   and  the   States  did  not  submit  to   its  authority  as 
willingly  as  when  they  were  all  in  terror  of  the  British. 
No  regular  government  for  the  whole  people  had  yet  been 


1779] 


FINANCIAL   STRAITS 


149 


formed,  and  Congress  could  only  go  on  begging  the  States 
for  soldiers,  issuing  paper  money,  and  running  into  debt 
in  France  and  Holland,  without  the  power  to  lay  taxes 


\Sixtj/ tBof&rs.  Nor? 

Bill  entbk* 

*lke  Bearer  to  recei'ue 
JSixtySpanifh  mill- 
led  DOLLARS,  or 

k/&  Value  t&rcof  in 
Gold  or  Silver^  &c- 

'  or  ding  to  a  Reiblu- 

:ion 


&fty&6tlh  1778 

JMOW 


crxn  noi.i 


CONTINENTAL  MONEY. 

(§  239)  or  redeem  the  debt.  The  pay  of  the  army  was 
small,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  war  the  men  were  not 
paid  at  all;1  so  that  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  recruits, 
except  when  a  British  force  entered  a  State  and  frightened 
men  into  the  army.  The  people  generally  were  begin 
ning  to  rely  on  France,  and  even  to  think  the  war  really 
over.  Most  of  the  burden  of  these  difficulties  fell  on 
Washington,  and  taxed  his  patience  to  the  utmost. 

235.  The  West. — Settlements  had  already  been  begun, 
in  1768-69,  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  (§  157,  note), 
but  they  were  not  large,  and  were  just  beginning  to  feel 

1  After  the  war,  the  soldiers  were  partly  paid  by  giving  them  western  lands. 
Those  who  lived  until  the  people  and  government  grew  richer  were  supported 
in  their  old  age  by  pensions. 


150  THE  REVOLUTION  [J779 

secure  against  the  Indians.  North  of  the  Ohio,  there 
were  only  the  remnants  of  the  French  settlements  (§  I  39), 
with  a  few  British  officers  and.  soldiers.  In  1778  and 
1779,  George  Rogers  Clarke  crossed  the  Ohio  with  a 
Kentucky  force,  captured  Vincennes,  and  conquered  the 
territory  now  in  the  States  of  Illinois  and  Indiana.  Vir 
ginia  claimed  it  (§  79),  and  made  it  the  county  of  Illinois. 
But  no  American  settlements  were  undertaken  in  it  for  a 
number  of  years. 

236.  The   British   Government  seems   to   have  become 
convinced,  when  France  entered  the  war,  that  in  the  end 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  must  be  acknowl 
edged.     But  it  wished  to  save  some  of  its  former  territory. 
It  had  failed  in  New  England  and  in  the  Middle  States. 
It  now  determined  to  attack  the  Southern  States,  since 
they  had  fewer  white  inhabitants  than  the  North,  and  the 
negro  slaves  would   not  count    as  soldiers.      During  the 
next  five  years,   1779-83,  the  fighting  was  mainly  in  the 
South,  while  the  armies  elsewhere   did   little   more   than 
watch  one  another.      Three  noteworthy  events  took  place 
in  the  North,  and  these  we  will  give  at  once. 

237.  Stony  Point :    1779. — A  rocky  hill,   called   Stony 
Point,  ran  out  into  the  Hudson,  nearly  opposite  Peekskill, 
and  the  British  had  taken  possession  of  it  and  fortified  it. 
Washington  sent  General  Anthony  Wayne,  an  officer  of 
distinguished  courage  and  skill,  to  recapture  it.   Just  before 
midnight,  July  15,  1779,  Wayne  silently  formed  his  men  in 
two  columns  on  opposite  sides  of  the  foot  of  the  hill,  giving 
them  orders  not  to  fire,  but  to  trust  to  the  bayonet.      The 
charge  was  completely  successful ;  the  two  columns  met  in 
the  centre  of  the  fort,  and  captured  it  and  the  garrison 
without  firing  a  shot.1     The  fort  was  too  near  New  York 

1  Wayne's  daring  gave  him  the  popular  name  of  "  Mad  Anthony  ";  but  he 
was  really  as  prudent  as  he  was  brave  (§  308). 


78o] 


ARNOLD'S    TREASON 


ANTHONY  WAYNE. 


to  be  held,  and  the  Americans,  after  destroying  the  works, 

retired.      The  object  of  the 

movement   was   mainly  to 

encourage     the     men,    by 

showing    them    that    they 

were   now  so  well  trained 

that  they  could  trust  to  the 

bayonet    as  well    as    the 

British. 

238.  Arnold's  Treason: 
1780.  -  -  In  September, 
1780,  the  country  was 
shocked  by  the  discovery 
that  Benedict  Arnold,  one 
of  its  bravest  generals,  and 
commander  of  the  impor 
tant  fortress  of  West  Point, 
had  planned  to  betray  his  post  to  the  British  in  return  for  a 
large  sum  of  money  and  a  brigadier-general's  commission 
in  the  British  army.  He  had  been  reprimanded  for  mis 
using  the  public  money,  and  took  this  road  to  revenge.  The 
British  agent  in  making  the  bargain  was  Major  John  Andre, 
an  amiable  young  officer,  Clinton's  aide-de-camp.  On  his 
return  down  the  Hudson  River  from  an  interview  with 
Arnold,  he  was  made  prisoner,  near  Tarrytown,  by  three 
militiamen.  He  was  allowed  by  an  American  officer  to 
send  warning  to  Arnold,  who  escaped  to  the  British  lines 
and  received  his  reward,  though  the  plot  had  failed.  Andre 
was  hanged  as  a  spy,  since  he  had  been  caught  in  disguise 
within  the  American  lines.  The  fate  of  Andre  was 
lamented  by  the  whole  American  army ;  but  Washington 
felt  that  it  was  necessary  as  a  warning  to  other  British 
officers  not  to  engage  in  such  affairs.  Efforts  were  made 
to  capture  Arnold,  in  order  to  hang  him  also,  but  they 


THE  REVOLUTION 


[178 


failed.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  lived  and  died  despised  by  Englishmen  as  well 
as  by  Americans. 

239.  Revolt   of  the  Troops:   1781 — In  January,    1781, 
the  misery  of  the  unpaid  and  half-starved  American.soldiers 


v  =•  /*c~^-jSfej»P-^ 

U 

JOHN  ANDRE.     (Drawn  by  himself.) 

at  Morristown  became  unbearable.  The  Pennsylvania 
troops  revolted,  and  set  out  for  Philadelphia  to  demand 
pay  from  Congress,  which  was  in  session  there.  On  the 
march,  British  agents  attempted  to  bring  them  over  to 
Clinton's  army,  but  were  arrested  by  the  soldiers.  A 
committee  of  Congress  met  them  at  Princeton,  and  by  fair 
promises  induced  them  to  disband  peaceably.  A  few 
weeks  later,  the  New  Jersey  troops  also  revolted,  but 
Washington  surrounded  their  camp  and  forced  them  to 
return  to  duty.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  there  were  serious 
fears  of  a  more  extensive  mutiny  among  the  officers  and 
soldiers  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  because  of  failure  to  pay 
them;  but  it  was  stopped  by  Washington '5  influence. 


'7  78] 


AMERICAN   NA1/AL   SUCCESSES 


153 


(9)    On  the  Sea. 

240.  The  American  War- Vessels  were  mainly  privateers, 

that  is,  vessels  owned  by  private  persons,  but  commis 
sioned  by  Congress,  or  by  one  of  the  States,  to  capture 
British  vessels.  Late  in  I775>  Congress  ordered  fourteen 


JOHN  PAUL  JONES. 

vessels  to  be  built  as  a  regular  navy  (§  191).  Most  of 
these  were  of  small  size,  but  together  with  the  privateers 
they  captured  a  great  number  of  merchant-vessels  and 
small  war-vessels,  and  seriously  injured  the  commerce  of 
Great  Britain.  Two  vessels,  the  Reprisal  and  the 
Revenge,  cruised  around  the  British  Isles  in  1777,  and 
almost  put  a  stop  to  commerce  for  the  time.  In  1778, 


THE  RESOLUTION 


[1779 


Captain  John  Paul  Jones,  in  the  Ranger,  repeated  the 
exploit,  and  even  landed  to  attack  various  places  on  the 
coast  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  number  of  vessels 
captured  from  the  British  is  not  exactly  known,  but  has 
been  estimated  at  about  700. 

241.  The  American  Navy  was  not  successfully  formed, 
owing   to   the   poverty  of  Congress   and    the    number   of 
British  vessels  on  the  coast.      A  number  of  vessels  were 
built,  but  they  were  captured  by  heavier  British  vessels, 
or  burned  in  the  Delaware  and   Hudson  rivers  to  prevent 
their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.      The  alliance 
with  France,  in   1778,   gave  Franklin  an  opportunity  to 
purchase  vessels  which  became  American  cruisers. 

242.  The  Richard  and  the  Serapis. — In  1779,  Franklin 
fitted  out  a  fleet  of  five  vessels,  under  command  of  Paul 

Jones.  Only  one  of  them,  an 
old  and  rotten  merchant- 
vessel,  was  of  respectable 
size,  and  Jones  named  it 
the  Bonhomme  Richard. 1 
The  crew  were  disorderly 
and  disobedient,  and  Jones 
had  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  controlling  them.  The 
captains  of  the  other  vessels 
were  fully  as  troublesome. 
For  a  month,  however,  the 
fleet  kept  the  eastern  coast 
of  Scotland  and  England  in 
alarm,  and  made  many  prizes.  September  23,  1779,  it 

1  Jones  was  a  native  of  Scotland  He  afterward  entered  the  Russian  navy, 
but  died  in  poverty  and  neglect.  The  name  of  his  ship  ("  Goodman 
Richard")  was  given  in  compliment  to  Franklin,  who,  while  a  Pennsylvania 
printer,  had  for  many  years  published  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac.'' 


SCALE  OF   WILES 
1—  1—  —  1                       1                      *b  'riHkWl-v 

T   H 
A 

amhoru»»& 
U..J 

;,g£klon 
T»a»**1 

0       50      100             200                 •'•  U        h'    '"• 

*    A  /**?  *  °  * 

?   ;%f^~7 

?    •*  r  •/  " 

^J/U-^urgh 

V^#-%< 

>.  >  ^H  I  ^fLiil 

~J^*           _//1^N     C5 
*%    *    s^*.*     J    «      \k 

•^<^^  /  ^^M/^ 

•<                      C^              /  —  -''       w  ''  '' 

^^^           English   <- 

THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 

1781]  IN  THE  SOUTH  155 

fell  in  with  two  British  frigates,  the  Serapis,  of  forty  guns, 
and  the  Countess  of  Scarborough,  of  twenty-two  guns,  off 
Flamborough  Head,  and  one  of  the  most  desperate  sea- 
fights  in  history  followed.  The  Richard  and  the  Serapis 
were  of  equal  force,  and  Jones  succeeded  in  tying  them 
together.  After  two  hours  of  frightful  slaughter,  in  which 
both  vessels  were  on  fire  several  times,  the  Serapis  sur 
rendered.  The  RicJiard  was  so  badly  injured  that  she 
sank  next  morning.  The  Countess  of  Scarborough  was 
captured  by  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  and  this  was  the  only 
assistance  given  to  the  Richard. 

243.  The  French  Fleets  on  the  American  coast  did  little 
except  to  protect  the  French  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
until  De  Grasse,  in  1781,  gave  great  assistance  in  captur 
ing  Cornwallis   (§258).      During  the  last  three  years  of 
the  war  there  were  but  two  American  frigates  in  active 
service,  and  both  were  of  small  size.      One  large  vessel, 
the  America,  of  seventy-four  guns,  was  built,  but  Congress 
presented  it  to  the  king  of  France.      The  New  England 
States  did  not  cease  to  send  out  privateers.      In   1779,  a 
fleet  of  nineteen  armed  vessels  and  twenty-four  transports, 
from  Boston,  attacked  Castine,  then  held  by  the   British. 
During  the  attack,  a  British  fleet  arrived  and  captured  all 
the  vessels.      The  men  escaped  by  land. 

(10)   In  the  SoutJi:  ijj8-8i. 

244.  Savannah  ,was   attacked   by  a   British   expedition 
from  New  York,  late  in   1778,  and  was  easily  captured. 
British  troops  from  Florida  then  joined  the   expedition. 
Augusta  was  taken,  and  the  whole  State  of  Georgia  soon 
fell  under    British   control.      General    Benjamin  Lincoln, 
the  American  commander,  could  do  little  except  keep  the 
British   out   of  South   Carolina,    and   prevent   the   South 


THE  RESOLUTION 


l>779 


Carolina  Tories  from  escaping  to  Georgia.     In  September, 

1779,  he  crossed  into  Georgia,  and,  with  the  help  of  the 

French  fleet  under  D'Estaing 

(§  226),    attacked    Savannah. 

He  was  repulsed  with    heavy 

loss,     and     D'Estaing     sailed 

away    to     the     West     Indies. 

Among  the  dead  was  Pulaski 

(§    214).        The    British 

then  re-established  the 

king's  authority 

throughout 

Georgia     with 


IN  THE 

SOUTHERN  STATES 


very  little  resistance,  and  Lincoln  retired  to  South  Caro 
lina. 

245.  Minor  Movements.— In  February,  1779,  a  body  of 
700  Tories  from  North  Carolina,  while  marching  to 
Georgia,  were  defeated  and  scattered  in  South  Carolina 
by  the  militia  under  Colonel  Pickens.  The  next  month, 


1779]  GEORGIA  AND    THE   CAROLINES  157 

a  force  of  2,000  Americans  crossed  into  Georgia  and  was 
defeated  at  Briar  Creek.  In  April,  the  British  in  their 
turn  made  a  movement  toward  Charleston,  but  found 
Lincoln  ready  for  battle,  and  withdrew  to  Georgia. 
Operations  in  the  South  then  ceased  for  the  summer  of 
1779.  Elsewhere,  the  British  sent  plundering  expeditions 
from  New  York  into  Connecticut  and  Virginia,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  sending  of  American  reinforcements  to  the 
South.  In  this  way  the  towns  of  New  Haven  and  Nor- 
walk,  in  Connecticut,  and  Portsmouth  and  Norfolk,  in 
Virginia,  were  plundered. 

246,  Georgia  was  the  first  State  which  the  British  had 
completely  conquered,  and  they  treated  the  Whigs  (§  170) 
with  severity.      The  Tories  in  the  State  were  allowed  to 
injure    their    Whig    neighbors    almost    as    they    pleased. 
In  the  neighboring   States  of  South   Carolina  and   North 
Carolina,  the  Whigs  were  quick  to  inflict  similar  harshness 
on   their   Tory   neighbors.      Thus  the  war  in   the  South 
immediately  became  more  ferocious  on  both  sides  than  it 
had  ever  been  in  the  North.      As  each  army  gained  new 
territory,  its  enemies  among  the  inhabitants  were  treated 
as  traitors.      In  consequence,  nearly  all  the  people  were 
forced  to  take  part  in  the  war,  either  against  the  regular 
armies    or   against   their   neighbors.      For   the    next   two 
years  there  was  no  peace,  no  work,  and  no  good  feeling 
in  the  South ;   while  the  hanging  or  shooting  of  men  by 
their  neighbors,  and  even  of  brother  by  brother,  made  the 
results  of  the  war  more  horrible  than  open  battle. 

247.  Charleston. — In   October,    1779,    Clinton   ordered 
Newport  to  be  evacuated,  and  collected  all  his  available 
forces  at  New  York.      Then,  leaving  only  enough  troops 
in  New  York  to   defend  it   against  Washington,    late  in 
December  he  sailed  with  the  rest  to  Charleston.      Here 
the   British  from   Georgia  met  him ;    the  fleet  forced  its 


IS8  THE  REVOLUTION  [1780 

way  through  the  harbor  to  the  city ;  and  in  May,  after  a 
vigorous  defence,  Lincoln  was  compelled  to  surrender 
Charleston,  together  with  his  army  of  6,000  men.  Clinton 
refused  to  allow  the  garrison  to  surrender  unless  it  would 
go  through  a  public  ceremony  of  laying  down  its  arms 
(§  261)."  He  then  sent  out  expeditions  to  various  parts 
of  the  State,  under  his  best  cavalry  officer,  Tarleton,  and 
scattered  every  American  force  that  made  its  appearance. 
Tarleton  was  for  a  long  time  very  successful.  During 
the  siege  of  Charleston  he  surprised  a  body  of  Americans 
at  Monk's  Corner,  thirty  miles  from  Charleston,  and 
routed  them.  Soon  after,  he  scattered  another  American 
force  at  the  Waxhaws,  near  the  North  Carolina  line. 

248.  South   Carolina   was   now    under    British   control. 
Clinton    considered    his    work    done,    and  sailed    back   to 
New  York  with  part  of  his  troops,  leaving  Cornwallis  in 
command  of  the  rest.      But  the  State  was  never  entirely 
quiet,    even    when     the    British     seemed     to    control    it. 
Sumter,  Marion,  and  other  South  Carolina  leaders  found 
places  of  refuge  in  the  great  swamps  in  different  parts  of 
the  State ;  and  from  these  they  kept  up  an  active  warfare 
with  the  British.      Their  desperate  battles,  night-marches, 
surprises,  and  hair-breadth  escapes  make  this  one  of  the 
most  exciting  and  interesting  periods  of  the  Revolution. 

249.  Camden. — Congress     sent     Gates,    the    victor    of 
Saratoga,   to  take  command  of  the  forces  in  the  South. 
He  passed  across  North   Carolina  with  nearly  three  times 
as  many  men  as  the  British,  and  met  them  at  Camden  in 
August,    1780.      Most    of   Gates's    men    were    untrained 
militia,  who  at  the  first  fire  from  the  British   fled   without 
firing  a  shot  in  return.      The  few  Continental  troops  from 
Maryland  fought  obstinately,  but  finally  retreated,  losing 
their  commander,  De  Kalb  (§  214).      Gates  fled  ahead  of 
his  army  to  Hillsboro  (near  the  present  city  of  Raleigh), 


i78i] 


KING'S  MOUNTAIN  AND   THE  COWPENS 


J59 


and  South  Carolina  was  left  still  more  completely  at  the 
mercy  of  the  British.  Gates  had  been  so  unsuccessful  that 
Congress  removed  him,  and 
sent  one  of  the  most  cautious 
and  successful  of  the  Ameri 
can  generals,  Nathaniel 
Greene,  of  Rhode  Island, 
to  take  his  place. 

250.  King's   Mountain. — 
After  the  battle  of  Camden, 
Cornwallis      sent      Colonel 
Ferguson,  with   i,ioomen, 
to  arouse  the  Tories  in  North 
Carolina.      He  was  not  suc 
cessful,  and  soon  found  it  ad 
visable  to  fortify  himself  on 
King's   Mountain,    between 
the     Broad     and     Catawba 
rivers.      Here,   in    October, 
1780,  he  was  attacked  and 
utterly  defeated  by  a  force  of 
about    a    thousand  riflemen 

hastily  gathered  from  western  North  Carolina  and  eastern 
Tennessee.  About  the  same  time,  Tarleton  surprised 
Sumter  at  Fishing  Creek,  and  scattered  his  men  for  a 
time. 

251.  The  Cowpens. — Greene  sent  Morgan,   a    Virginia 
officer,  into   South  Carolina  with  a  thousand  riflemen  to 
gather   recruits.      Tarleton  was    sent  after  him  with  about 
an  equal  force,  and  attacked  him  in  January,   1781,  at  the 
Cowpens,    a    pasture-field   near    Spartanburgh.      For   the 
first  time,  Tarleton  was  completely  beaten,  losing  nearly 
all    his  men.       Cornwallis   immediately  moved    with    all 
his  force  after   Morgan,    who  had  begun   to  retreat  with 


NATHANIEL  GREENE. 


160  THE  RESOLUTION  [1781 

his  prisoners.  Morgan  and  Greene  together  were  too 
weak  to  meet  Cornwallis,  and  they  managed  a  skilful  and 
fortunate  retreat  across  North  Carolina  into  Virginia.  As 
they  crossed  the  Catawba,  the  Yaclkin,  and  the  Dan 
rivers,  Cornwallis  was  just  behind  them ;  but  in  each  case 
a  sudden  rise  of  the  river  prevented  him  from  crossing  in 
time  to  overtake  them.  At  the  Dan,  Cornwallis  gave  up 
the  chase,  and  turned  back  to  Hillsboro. 

252.  Arnold  in  Virgina. — Benedict  Arnold   (§  238)  was 
now  a  general  in  the  British  service.      In  January,  1781, 
he  was  sent  from   New  York,  with  1,600  men,  to  ravage 
Virginia  and  prevent  reinforcements  from  being  sent  to 
Greene.      The  Americans  were  naturally  very  anxious  to 
capture  him.      La  Fayette  was    sent    by  Washington  to 
oppose  him  by  land,    while   a  few    French  vessels   were 
to  cut  off  his  retreat  by  sea.      A  British  fleet  drove  the 
French  vessels  back  to  Newport.      Reinforcements  under 
General    Phillips    were   sent    to  Arnold,    who    plundered 
Virginia  without  mercy,  while  La  Fayette  could  do  little 
more  than  watch  him. 

253.  Guilford  Court-house — Greene  soon   obtained  re 
cruits   enough    to    enable   him    to    turn    back   into    North 
Carolina,  and  the  two  armies  met  at  Guilford  Court-house 
(now  Greensboro),  in  March,  1781.    Lack  of  ammunition 
compelled  the  North  Carolina  militia  to  withdraw,  but  the 
rest  of  Greene's  army  held  its  ground  stubbornly,  and  at 
last  retreated  in  excellent  order.      The  British  loss  was  so 
heavy   that   Cornwallis    did    not    venture   to   pursue,    but 
retired  to  Wilmington  to  obtain  supplies  from  his   ships. 

''  There  were  no  further  battles  between  these  two  armies, 
for  during  the  next  two  months  they  passed  one  another, 
Greene  moving  south  into  South  Carolina,  and  Cornwallis 
moving  north  into  Virginia. 

254.  South  Carolina. — As  soon  as  Cornwallis  retired  to 


1781]  SOUTH  CAROLINA  AND    VIRGINIA  161 

Wilmington,  Greene  moved  across  North  Carolina  into 
South  Carolina,  where  the  British  were  under  command 
of  Lord  Rawdon.  Battles  followed,  in  April  and  May, 
1781,  the  principal  one  being  fought  at  Hobkirk's  Hill 
(near  Camden).  Greene  was  again  forced  to  retreat,  but 
inflicted  heavy  loss  upon  his  enemy.  He  spent  the 
summer  at  the  hills  of  the  Santee,  near  Camden.  In 
September  he  again  moved  down  toward  the  coast,  and 
fought  the  last  battle  of  the  war  in  this  State,  at  Eutaw 
Springs,  near  Charleston.  Again  the  British  had  the 
advantage,  but  their  loss  was  so  heavy  that  they  retreated 
during  the  night,  and  took  refuge  in  Charleston.  Greene 
had  finished  his  work.  By  sheer  caution,  activity,  and 
perseverance,  and  without  winning  a  single  victory,  he 
had  almost  cleared  the  South  of  the  enemy.  He  now  held 
every  part  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  excepting 
Charleston  and  Savannah,  to  which  cities  he  kept  the 
British  closely  confined  for  the  rest  of  the  war. 

255.  Virginia. — Cornwallis  at  Wilmington  knew  noth 
ing  of  Greene's  movement  until  it  was  too  late  to  intercept 
him.  Then,  thinking  that  Rawdon  was  strong  enough  to 
defeat  Greene,  he  decided  to  move  north  into  Virginia, 
join  the  British  troops  already  there,  and  endeavor  to 
conquer  that  State.  He  met  no  great  opposition  on  his 
march,  and  Tarleton's  cavalry  plundered  the  country  at 
will.  On  reaching  Virginia,  Cornwallis  found  that  he  had 
about  8,000  men,  twice  as  many  as  the  force  under 
La  Fayette  which  was  opposed  to  him.  Orders  were 
sent  from  New  York  by  Clinton  to  seize  and  fortify  some 
strong  place  on  the  coast  which  could  be  reached  easily 
by  the  British  vessels.  Yorktown,  on  the  peninsula 
between  the  James  and  York  rivers,  appeared  to  Corn 
wallis  to  be  the  best  location;  and  here  he  fixed  the 
headquarters  of  his  army. 


162  THE  REVOLUTION 


(11)    York  town:  17.81. 

256.  Washington   had  not  yet  himself  won  a   victory, 
unless  we  are  to  consider  the  smaller  battles  of  Trenton, 
Princeton,  and  Monmouth  as  such.      He  had  surmounted 
the   very   greatest   difficulties;    he    had    gone   into   battle 
knowing  that  defeat  was  almost  certain,  and  yet  he  had 
made  each  defeat  a  training-school  for  his  men ;   he  had 
shown  the  best  qualities  of  a  general  in  camp  and  battle 
field  ;  he  had  been  worth  more  than  an  army  in  keeping 
resistance  alive ;  and  he  had  well  earned  the  universal  and 
unfailing    confidence     of  the    people.       But    it    certainly 
seemed   fitting   that   he   should  also  have    the   crowning 
glory  of  a  great  victory  to  close  the  war. 

257.  Rochambeau,  with  a  French  army  of  6,000  men, 
had  landed  at  Newport  in  the  summer  of  1780.      They 
were    afterward    marched    to    Washington's    camp    near 
Peekskill  and  Morristown.      With  these  soldiers  to  help 
him,  Washington,  early  in  1781,  began  active  operations 
around  New  York,  and  kept  Clinton  in  a  state  of  constant 
alarm.      In  August  his  plan  was  changed  by  the  arrival 
of  a  French  frigate  with  the  news  that  a  strong  French 
fleet  and  army  would  soon  arrive  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  and 
cut  off  Cornwallis  from    all    assistance.      Washington  at 
once  decided  to  leave  New  York,  march  rapidly  south 
ward,  and   capture  Yorktown   and   Cornwallis   before  the 
British  fleets  could  reach  the  Chesapeake  and  drive  the 
French   fleet   away.1     The   change   of  plan   was   kept   a 
profound  secret.      Clinton  was  kept  in  daily  expectation 
of  an  attack  on  New  York,  and  did  not  discover  the  truth 

1  The  French  fleet  was  sent  from  the  West  Indies  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  to 
remain  about  four  months.  It  was  stronger  than  any  single  British  fleet  then 
on  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  the  British  admirals  did  not  work 
together  well  enough  to  unite  their  fleets  and  beat  it  off. 


i78i] 


YORKTOWN 


163 


for  several   days  after  Washington  and  Rochambeau  had 
started  for  Virginia. 

258.  The  March  to  Yorktown. — The  French  fleet,  under 
De  Grasse,    arrived  in   Chesapeake   Bay   August   30.      It 
not     only    blocked    Corn- 

wallis's  escape  by  sea,  but 
landed  soldiers  enough  to 
enable  La  Fayette  to  pre 
vent  his  escape  by  land. 
On  the  same  day,  Wash 
ington  and  Rochambeau, 
who  had  been  moving 
slowly  down  the  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson  River,  as  if 
to  attack  Staten  Island, 
suddenly  struck  off  through 
New  Jersey  to  Philadelphia, 
and  thence  to  Elkton.  Here 
they  took  shipping  and 
sailed  down  Chesapeake 
Bay  to  the  James  River, 
where  they  joined  La  Fay 
ette 's  army  before  York- 
town.  While  the  march 
was  taking  place,  a  British 
fleet  had  tried  to  relieve  Cornwallis,  but  had  been  beaten 
off  by  the  French  fleet. 

259.  New  London. — The  inarch  southward  was  as  much 
of  a  surprise  to  the  American  and  French  soldiers  as  to 
Clinton.      When  Clinton  discovered  its  purpose,  he  tried 
to  draw  off  a  part  of  the  American  troops  by  sending  the 
traitor    Arnold    to    attack    New    London,    Conn.       Fort 
Griswold,    which  defended  the  town,  was  captured   Sep 
tember  6,  and  its  commander  and  most  of  the  garrison 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


THE  YORKTOWN  CAMPAIGN. 


i64 


THE  REVOLUTION 


[1781 


MAIN  MOVEMENTS  OF 
BRITISH  TROOPS 

BY     LAND    AND    SEA 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


ujj^i^^ 


were  killed  after  they 
had  surrendered.  This 
useless  butchery  had  no 
effect  on  Washington's 
march  to  Yorktown. 

260.  The  Siege  of 
Yorktown — The  allied 
armies  of  France  and 
the  United  States  formed  a  half-circle 
in  front  of  Yorktown,  and  the  siege 
began  September  30,  1781.  The 
French  troops  were  brilliant  with  new 
and  bright  uniforms,  while  the  dress  of 
the  Americans  was  faded  and  ragged. 
But  there  was  no  such  difference  in 
the  fighting  power  of  the  two  armies,  and  there  was 
a  constant  rivalry  between  them  for  the  lead  in  the 


1783]  PEACE  165 

attacks.  After  three  weeks  of  siege  and  hard  fighting, 
Cornwallis  found  that  it  was  impossible  to  resist  longer. 
He  made  one  attempt  to  take  his  army  across  the  York 
River  and  hurry  northward  before  the  allies  could  follow 
him ;  but  a  sudden  storm  scattered  his  boats  and  defeated 
his  plan.  He  then  decided  to  surrender. 

261.  The  Surrender  took  place  October  19,   1781,  in  a 
large  field  near  Yorktown.1      The  British  troops,  8,000  in 
number,  went  through  the  same  public   ceremony  of  sur 
render   which   had   been   imposed   on   the    Americans   at 
Charleston  ;  and  Lincoln,  who  had  commanded  at  Charles 
ton,  was  appointed  to  receive  Cornwallis 's  sword  (§  247). 
Cornwallis,    however,    was   worn   out  by   long  work  and 
fighting,  and  sent  a  subordinate  to   make  the  surrender. 
It  had  hardly  taken  place,  when  an  expedition  sailed  from 
New  York,  with  7,000  men,  to  relieve  Cornwallis,  but  it 
returned  on  finding  that  the  surrender  had  taken  place. 
The  allied  forces  then  separated.      De  Grasse  sailed  for 
the  West  Indies.      The  French  troops  remained  in  Vir 
ginia.      The    Americans    marched    back    to    New    York, 
except  a   detachment  which  went  southward  and  recap 
tured  Wilmington. 

(12)   Peace:  1783. 

262.  Peace. — The    terms   of  peace    were    not    at   once 
arranged.      But   it   was    difficult    and    expensive    for    the 
British  Government  to  obtain   men  to  serve  in  America, 
and  the  loss  of  Cornwallis's  army  could  not  be  made  up. 
When  the  news  reached  London  the  ministry  resigned, 
and    Parliament   demanded  peace  so  decidedly  that    the 
king  gave  way.      Both  parties  agreed  to  cease  hostilities 
and    appoint    commissioners    to    agree   on    terms.       The 

1  For  the  centennial  celebration  of  the  surrender,  see  §  820. 


166  THE  REVOLUTION  [i783 

British  still  held  New  York,  Charleston,  and  Savannah, 
and  the  Americans  were  encamped  near  those  places ;  but 
there  were  no  more  battles. 

263.  The   Final   Treaty  of  peace   was   made   in    1783. 
Great  Britain  acknowledged  the  United  States  to  be  free 
and    independent,    with    Canada    as    a    boundary   on    the 
north,    the   Mississippi   River  on   the   west,    and    Florida, 
extending  west  to  the   Mississippi,  on  the   south.      Spain 
owned  the  territory  west  of  the   Mississippi,  called  Louisi 
ana   (§  155);    and   Great   Britain   now   transferred   to    her 
Florida  also.      The  United   States  thus  had  Great  Britain 
as  a  neighbor  on  the   north,  and  Spain  on  the  south  and 
west.      The  treaty  also  secured  the  right  of  Americans  to 
fTsh  on  the  Newfoundland  Banks. 

264.  The  American  Army  \vas  now  disbanded,  having 
been    paid    principally  in    promises.      Officers    and    men 
retired  to  their  homes  very  much  dissatisfied  with  their 
unjust  treatment  by  Congress  and  the  country.     Washing 
ton    then    appeared    before    Congress    at   Annapolis    and 
resigned  his  commission.      The  British  evacuated  Savan 
nah  in  July,  1782,  Charleston  in  the  following  December, 
and  New  York  City,  their  last  post  on  the  coast,  Novem 
ber   25,    1783.      But   they   refused    to    evacuate  the   forts 
north  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  held  them   for  some  twelve 
years  longer  (§  309). 

265.  The  Expenses  of  the  war  cannot  be  exactly  stated. 
Those    of   the    United     States    have    been    estimated    at 
$135,  ooo,  ooo  in  specie.     The  debt  of  Great  Britain  was  in 
creased  during  the  war  about  $610,000,000.     The  British 
forces  in  the  whole  of  North  America  probably  never  at 
anyone  time   exceeded  40,000  men;   and  the  American 
regular   troops   were   about  the  same  number.       Most  of 
the  larger  American  armies  were  made  up  of  minute-men 
or  militia,  who  remained  in  the  service  but  a  short  time. 


o  F 


TITE  TOTTED  STATES 

AT  THE 

PEACE  OF  1783 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  10.0  200  300 


Longitude.  We 


from       3      "Washington 


1777]  LEADING   EVENTS  IN    THE   WAR  167 

266.  The  Tories. — During  the  war,  most  of  the  States 
had  passed  laws  to  confiscate  the  estates  of  persons  who 
had  taken  the  British  side.      Therefore,  at  the  end  of  the 
war,  many  of  the  Tories  retired  from  the  United  States 
with  the  British  troops;  those  from  the  North  going  to 
Canada  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  those  from  the  South  to  the 
West  Indies.      Some  of  them  returned,  years  afterward, 
without  hindrance,  after  the  angry  feelings  excited  by  the 
war  had  died  away. 

267.  The  Leading  Events  in  the  war  of  the  American 
Revolution  were  as  follows: 

1775-6  :   Principally  in  New  England  and  Canada §  194 

1775:  Lexington;  American  success  (April  19)      181 
Ticonderoga;  American  success  (May 

10) 199 

Bunker  Hill;  British  success  (June  17)      196 
Quebec;  British  success  (December  31)     200 
1776:  Evacuation  of  Boston;  American  suc 
cess  (March  17) 198 

Fort   Moultrie,  S.    C. ;  American  suc 
cess  (June  28) 203 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE,  July  4      205 

1776-8:   Principally  in  the  Middle  States 209 

1776:  Long  Island;  British  success  (August 

27) 209 

Evacuation  of  New  York;  British  suc 
cess  (September  16) 209 

Washington's  New  Jersey  retreat;  Brit 
ish  success 210 

Trenton;    American    success   (Decem 
ber  26) 212 

1777:  Princeton;      American     success     (Jan 
uary  3) 212 

British  army  transferred  to  Chesapeake 

Bay 215 

Brandy  wine;  British  success  (Septem 
ber  n) 216 

Germantown;  British  success  (October 

4) 216 


1 68  THE  RESOLUTION 

1777:  Burgoyne's  invasion §218 

Bennington;     American   success    (Au 
gust  1 6) 220 

Bemis  Heights;  drawn  battle  (Septem 
ber  19) 222 

Still  water;     American    success    (Octo 
ber  7) 222 

Burgoyne's  surrender;   American  suc 
cess  (October  17) 222 

American    winter    quarters    at    Valley 

Forge 217 

1778:  Treaty  with  France  (February  6) 226 

British     retreat     from     Philadelphia; 

American  success  (June  18) 228 

Monmouth;  drawn  battle  (June  28)..  228 
Wyoming;  massacre  by  the  British 

(July  4) 232 

1778-81  :   Principally  in  the  Southern  States 244 

1778:  Capture  of  Savannah;    British  success 

(December  29) 244 

1779:  Conquest  of  Georgia;   British  success..      246 
Attack  on  Savannah;    British   success 

(September) 244 

Stony  Point,  N.  Y.  ;  American  success 

(Jul7  15) 237 

1780:  Capture  of  Charleston ;  British  success 

(May  12) 247 

Conquest  of  South  Carolina;  British 

success 248 

Arrival  of  the  French  army  at  Newport, 

R.  I.  (July  10) 257 

Camden;  British  success  (August  16).  249 
Arnold's  treason,  N.  Y.  (September)..  238 
King's  Mountain;  American  success 

(October  7) 250 

Greene  takes  command  in  the  South.  .  249 
1781  :  Cowpens;  American  success  (January 

^  17). 251 

Greene's  retreat  across  North  Carolina.  251 
Guilford  Court-house;  British  success 

(March  15) 253 

Hobkirk's  Hill;  British  success  (April 

25) 254 


1783]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  169 

1781:  Eutaw  Springs;  British  success  (Sep 
tember  8) §  2  54 

End  of  the  war  in  the  South 254 

Invasion  of  Virginia  by  Arnold  and 

Cornwallis 255 

Washington's  army  transferred  to  Vir 
ginia , 260 

Capture  of  Yorktown;  American  suc 
cess  (October  19) 261 

1782  :        Suspension  of  hostilities 262 

1783  :        Peace  (September  3) 263 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  causes  of  the  Revolution. 

2.  Early  predictions  of  independence. 

3.  The  American  loyalists. 

4.  Washington  as  a  general. 

5.  Military  resources  of  the  colonies. 

6.  Events    of   the    war   in    a    particular    state    (e.g.,    North 
Carolina). 

7.  Franklin  in  France. 

8.  The  military  importance  of  New  York. 

9.  Why  did  Great  Britain  fail  to  subdue  the  colonies  ? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — The  documents  in  MacDonald's  Select  Charters, 
Nos.  74-80,  show  the  failure  of  conciliation,  and  the  final  steps 
taken  by  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country.  Niles's  Prin 
ciples  and  Acts,  and  the  writings  of  leading  Americans,  are  of 
importance  for  the  entire  period  of  the  war.  The  treaty  of 
1783  is  in  MacDonald's  Select  Documents,  No.  3.  Wharton's 
Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolution,  a  govern 
ment  publication,  is  indispensable  in  its  field.  Sparks's  Corre 
spondence  of  the  Revolution  gives  many  letters  to  Washington. 
!  On  the  English  side  are  Donne's  Correspondence  of  George  III. 
and  Lord  North,  the  Chatham  Correspondence,  and  the  works  of 
Burke. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  general  histories  already  cited 
are  very  full  for  the  Revolutionary  period.  To  them  may 
profitably  be  added  the  older  works  of  Grahame  and  Pitkin, 
Ramsay's  History  of  the  American  Revolution,  Gordon's  History 


i  yo  THE  RESOLUTION 

of  the  American  Revolution,  and  Greene's  Historical  View  of  the 
American  Revolution.  The  best  recent  English  view  is  set  forth 
in  Lecky's  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  Trevelyan's 
American  Revolution.  The  best  concise  account  of  the  war  is 
Fiske's  American  Revolution.  Important  works  -of  a  special 
character  are:  Moore's  Diary  of  the  American  Revolution;  Car- 
rington's  Battles  of  the  American  Revolution;  Dawson's  Battles 
of  the  United  States;  Lossing's  Pictorial  Field-book  of  the  Revolu 
tion;  E.  J.  Lowell's  Hessians  in  the  Revolution;  Sabine's  Ameri 
can  Loyalists;  Stone's  Campaign  of  Burgoyne;  Lyman's  Diplomacy 
of  the  United  States;  Schuyler's  American  Diplomacy;  E.  E. 
Hale's  Franklin  in  France.  The  more  important  biographies, 
in  addition  to  those  already  cited,  are  Hosmer's  Hutchinson, 
Arnold's  Arnold,  Lossing's  Schuyler,  Fonblanque's  Burgoyne, 
Stone's  Brant,  Amory's  Sullivan,  Graham's  Morgan,  Greene's 
Greene,  R.  H.  Lee's  Arthur  Lee,  Wm.  Jay's  Jay,  Ross's  Corn- 
wallis,  Russell's  Fox,  Stanhope's  Pitt,  Morley's  Burke,  and 
Fitzmaurice's  Shelburne. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Tyler's  Literary  History  of  the 
American  Revolution;  Moore's  Songs  and  Ballads  of  the  Ameri 
can  Revolution;  Hawthorne's  Septimius  Felton;  Churchill's 
Richard  Carvel;  Coffin  'sBoys  of '76  and  Daughters  of  the  Revo 
lution;  Longfellow's  Paul  Revere' s  Ride;  Holmes's  Ballad  of 
the  Boston  Tea  Party,  Lexington,  and  Grandmother's  Story  of 
Bunker  Hill  Battle;  Lowell's  Concord  Ode;  Cooper's  Lionel 
Lincoln  (siege  of  Boston),  The  Spy,  and  The  Pilot  (Paul  Jones); 
Thompson's  Green  Mountain  Boys  and  The  Rangers;  G.  W. 
Curtis's  Burgoyne' s  Surrender  (centennial  oration);  Butter- 
worth's  Knight  of  Liberty  (La  Fayette),  Burdett's  Margaret 
Moncrieffe  (Burr);  S.  W.  Mitchell's  Hugh  Wynne  (Philadel 
phia),  Harte's  Thankful  Blossom  (New  Jersey);  P.  L.  Ford's 
Janice  Meredith  (New  Jersey  campaign);  J.  E.  Cooke's  Bonnybel 
Vane;  Bryant's  Song  of  Marion' s  Men,  Kennedy's  Horseshoe 
Robinson;  W.  G.  Simms's  Partisan,  Mellichampe.  The  Scout, 
Kalherine  Walton,  The  Forayers,  The  Eutaws  (the  last  seven  on 
the  war  in  the  South). 


CHAPTER    X 
THE    CONFEDERATION 

1777-1789 

268.  The   New   Nation. — The   United   States  had   thus 
become    a    nation,    recognized    as  such   by  treaties  with 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  other  countries.      But  the  new 
nation  had  come  into  existence  rather  because  the  Ameri 
can  people  could  not  help  it  than  because  the  American 
people  had  any  great  desire  for  it.      Most  Americans  at 
this  time   loved  their  State  far  better  than  they  did  the 
United  States ;  and  many  of  them  really  believed  that  they 
could  keep  each  State  practically  independent  of  all  the 
other   States,    as  well   as   of  the  rest  of  the   world,    with 
little  more  than   a  promise  that  the  States  should   help 
one  another  in  foreign  affairs.      They  were  afraid  of  any 
' '  government  of  the  United  States, ' '  lest  it  should  attempt 
to  tryannize  over  the  States,  as  the   British  Government 
had  done  over  the  colonies. 

(i)    The  Failure  of  the  Confederation. 

269,  The  Continental  Congress  had  managed  the  affairs 
of  the  Union  throughout  the  war.      It  had  never  received 
any   authority   to  govern   the  country;    and  as   far   as   it 
governed  at  all,  it  did  so  because  the  mass  of  the  people 
consented  to  allow  it  to  govern,  and  because  those  who 
disliked  its  government  were  not  strong  enough  to  resist 

171 


1 72  THE   CONFEDERATION  [i?77 

it.  The  people  had  given  authority  to  their  State  govern 
ments,  by  forming  State  constitutions,  and  thus  the  State 
governments  had  something  to  show  for  their  claims  to 
govern  their  States.  Congress  had  nothing  to  show;  it 
only  existed  because  the  States 'had  sent  delegates  to  it, 
and  it  was  hoped  that  they  would  continue  to  do  so. 
Now,  such  a  government  was  really  no  government;  and, 
as  Hamilton  once  said,  "a  nation  without  a  national 
government  is  an  awful  spectacle."  People  obeyed  it 
when  they  chose  to  obey  it,  and  disobeyed  it  when  they 
chose  to  disobey  it,  which  was  more  commonly  the  case ; 
and  no  one  felt  safe  in  thinking  of  the  future.  Congress 
was  the  only  means  to  unite  the  States,  and  for  this  reason 
it  was  obeyed  cheerfully  as  long  as  the  danger  from  the 
British  was  pressing;  but,  as  that  danger  grew  less,  the 
State  governments  began  to  seize  more  and  more  of  the 
power,  until  very  little  was  left  to  Congress.  As  the 
State  governments  appointed  the  delegates  to  Congress, 
and  could  recall  them  at  any  time,  the  delegates  soon 
came  to  do  nothing  more  than  obey  their  State  govern 
ments.  Thus  the  Continental  Congress  became  almost 
powerless  after  1778. 

270.*  A  Plan  of  Government,  called  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation,  was  agreed  upon  by  Congress  in  1777.  There 
was  to  be  a  Congress,  composed  of  delegates  from  each 
State,  no  State  to  be  represented  by  less  than  two  nor 
more  than  seven  delegates,  but  each  State  to  have  one 
vote.  The  States  were  forbidden  to  engage  in  war  unless 
invaded,  or  to  make  agreements  with  each  other  without 
the  consent  of  Congress.  In  case  of  disputes  between 
States,  a  method  was  prescribed  by  which  the  United 
States  might  decide  the  question.  The  charges  of  war 
and  the  expenses  of  the  national  government  were  to  be 
apportioned  among  the  several  States  according  to  the 


1781]  WESTERN  LAND  CLAIMS  173 

value  of  land  in  each.  For  the  administration  of  govern 
ment  when  the  Congress  was  not  in  session,  a  committee, 
consisting  of  one  delegate  from  each  State,  was  provided. 
To  amend  the  Articles,  the  approval  of  the  legislatures  of 
all  the  States  was  necessary.  The  Articles  were  not  to 
go  into  force  until  all  the  States  should  agree  to  them. 
Twelve  of  the  States  agreed  within  the  next  two  years, 
but  Maryland  refused  until  March  i,  1781.  The  United 
States  thus  went  through  nearly  the  entire  period  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  without  any  frame  of  national  govern 
ment.  The  main  cause  of  this  long  delay  was  in  disputes 
about  the  western  territory. 

271.  Land  Claims. — Much  of  the  difficulty  of  arranging 
a  new  government  came  from  the  claim  of  some  of  the 
States  to  western  territory.  The  king  had  given  western 
boundaries  to  six  of  the  colonies,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Mary 
land  ;  and  these  could  not  expect  to  extend  farther  west 
ward.  New  York  claimed  to  have  no  western  boundary; 
but  was  willing  to  be  bounded  as  at  present.  The 
remaining  six  States,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Vir 
ginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  were 
at  first  supposed  to  extend  \vestward  to  the  Pacific  (§  25). 
When  Louisiana  (§  155)  was  transferred  to  Spain  in  1763, 
the  western  claims  of  these  colonies  were  cut  off  by  the 
Mississippi  River.  But  they  still  claimed  that  they 
extended  west  as  far  as  the  Mississippi.  The  claim  of 
Virginia  was  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  (§  79).  The 
other  States  which  claimed  to  extend  to  the  Mississippi 
were  bounded  by  parallel  lines  on  the  north  and  south, 
so  that  they  grew  no  wider  as  they  extended  westward. 
But  Virginia  claimed  that  its  northern  boundary  ran  north 
west  instead  of  west,  so  that  its  territory  constantly 
widened  as  it  left  the  coast.  Virginia  thus  claimed  the 


174  THE   CONFEDERATION  [i787 

whole  of  the  territory  now  in  the  States  of  Kentucky, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  The 
claims  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  crossed  those  of 
Virginia  and  conflicted  with  them. 

272.  These   Western   Claims    seemed     unfounded    and 
highly  unjust  to  the  States  whose  western  boundaries  were 
fixed  already.     Those  States  asserted,  first,  that  the  king, 
by  forbidding  the  sale  of  lands  west  of  the  Alleghanies, 
had  fixed  those   mountains  as  a  western  boundary  for  all 
the  colonies  not  formerly  bounded;  and,  second,  that  all 
the  States  had  together  won  this  western  territory  from 
Great    Britain,    and    should    all    own   it    together.      The 
result  was  a  general  confusion,  some  of  the  States  selling 
lands  in  the  west,  and  quarrelling  with  each  other  where 
their  sales  conflicted,  and  the  rest  of  the  States  crying  out 
against  the  wrongfulness   of  such  sales.      Maryland,   the 
State  most  determined  in  resistance,  refused  to  agree  to 
the  Articles  of  Confederation  until  assurances  were   given 
that  these  western  claims  would  be  surrendered. 

273.  Land  Cessions. — New   York   gave   up   its  western 
claims    to    the    United    States    in    1780,    and     Congress 
earnestly  requested  the  other  States  to  do  likewise.      In 
1784  Virginia  gave  up  its  claim  north  of  the  Ohio,  Massa 
chusetts  in    1785,  Connecticut  in    1786.      South  Carolina 
gave  up  its  western   claims  in    1787,  North   Carolina  in 
1790,   and  Georgia   in    1802.      These   cessions  gave   the 
United   States  a   large  western   territory  (§  274).      Con 
necticut  retained  and  sold  a  large  strip  of  land  in  north 
eastern  Ohio,  along  Lake  Erie,  which  has  ever  since  been 
known  as  the  Western  Reserve.     Connecticut  also  claimed 
the    Wyoming  country,    in    the  northern   part  of   Penn 
sylvania,    but    this    claim    was    given    up.      A    claim    of 
Massachusetts  to  a  part  of  New  York  was  purchased  by 
the  latter  State. 


1787]  THE  ORDINANCE  OF  1787  175 

274.  The  Ordinance  of  1787. — The    surrender    of  these 
western  lands  gave  the  national  government  a  vast  terri 
tory,  for  which   it  soon   undertook  to  provide   a  form   of 
government.      As  soon  as  Virginia  had  given  up  its  claim 
to    the    northwest,    the    Congress    of   the    Confederation 
adopted  a  plan,    commonly  known  as  the   Ordinance  of 
1787,  for  the  government  of  the  territory  northwest  of  the 
Ohio  River,  or  the  ' '  Northwest  Territory. ' '     Slavery  was 
forever  prohibited  in  the  Territory.      The  inhabitants  were 
to  enjoy  religious  freedom,  trial  by  jury,  and  equal   civil 
and  political  privileges ;   and  common  schools  were  to  be 
supported  and  encouraged.      The  most  important  feature 
of  the  Ordinance,  however,  was  its  extension  of  the  system 
of  self-governing  States.      Congress  might  have  attempted 
to  govern  the  new  region  much  as  the  British  Parliament 
governed   its  colonies,   and  thus   build  up   an   American 
colonial    system ;    but    it    chose    otherwise.       While    the 
population   was    small,   indeed,   the   Territory  was  to  be 
governed  by  persons  appointed  by  Congress ;   but  as  the 
population  increased,  it  was  to  be  divided  into  States,  not 
more  than  five  in  number,  each  of  which  was  then  to  be 
admitted   into  the   Union   on   an   equal   footing  with   the 
original  States.      The  five  great  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  are  the  outcome  of  this 
provision.      The  provisions  of  the  Ordinance,   except  in 
regard  to  slavery  and  the  number  of  States,  were  soon 
extended  to  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio  River. 

275.  The   Articles   of  Confederation   were   found    to    be 
almost  worthless   as   soon  as   they  were  put  into  effect. 
There  was  to  be  one  governing  body,  Congress,  and  yet  it 
was  to  have  no  power  to  lay  taxes,  regulate  commerce,  or 
punish  law-breaking.      It  could  only  advise  the  States  to 
do  these  things,-  and  the  States  soon  came  to  pay  little  at 
tention  to  the  advice  of  Congress.      Before  long,  Congress 


176  THE  CONFEDERATION  [1786 

could  get  no  money  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  country,  or  even 
the  interest.  Strong  States  passed  laws  which  injured  the 
people  of  weaker  States,  and  there  was  no  power  to  hinder 
them.  Great  Britain  still  discriminated  against  American 
commerce,  and  Congress  had  no  power  to  prevent  it. 

276.  Shays's  Rebellion. — The  people  had  expected  pros 
perity  to   come  with   peace,    but  they  were  bitterly   dis 
appointed.      Little    business    was    done;    every    one    was 
trying  to  collect  debts,  and  no  one  had   money  to  pay; 
and  the  people  were  growing  poorer  and  desperate.      In 
the  winter  of  1786-7,  Massachusetts  had  great   difficulty 
in  suppressing  an  insurrection  of  the  poorer  farmers  in  the 
western  part  of  the  State,  around  Worcester  and  Spring 
field,  who  wished  to  stop  the  further  collection  of  debts 
by    the    courts.       The    affair    is    usually    called    Shays 's 
Rebellion,    from  the   name   of  the   leader,  Daniel  Shays. 
Other   States  were  afraid  of  similar  outbreaks,   and  they 
knew  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  help  them. 

277.  A  Change  of  Government  was  often  proposed,  but 
at  first  there  seemed  to  be  little  hope  of  it.      The  agree 
ment  had  been  made  that  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
were  not  to  be  changed  in  the  least  unless  all  the  States 
should   consent.      Whenever  a  change  was  proposed,   in 
order  to  give  Congress  more  power,  some  State  refused 
to  consent,  and  the  plan  fell  through.      Men  became  dis 
couraged  ;    many  began   to   regret  the   Revolution ;    and 
some  even  fell  to  talking  of  a  monarchy,  with  Washing 
ton  as  king.1 

(2)   Formation  of  the  Constitution. 

278.*  The   First   Convention.— The  leading  men  of  the 
country,  among  them  Washington,  Hamilton,  and  Madi- 

1  This  notion  of  a  monarchy  had  been  proposed  to  Washington   in  1782  by 
some  of  the  army  officers  ;  but  he  had  rejected  it  with  indignation. 


1 786] 


THE  ANNAPOLIS   CONTENTION 


177 


son,  had  been  busily  corresponding  with  each  other,  and 
had  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  root  of  the  trouble 
was  in  the  weakness  of  the  national  government,  and 
that,  somehow  or  other,  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
must  be  changed.  It  seemed  to  them  that  a  convention 
of  delegates  from  the  States  would  do  the  work  better 


STATE-HOUSE  AT  ANNAPOLIS. 


than  either  Congress  or  the  State  legislatures.  Washing 
ton  induced  the  Virginia  Legislature  to  call  for  a  conven 
tion  of  delegates  from  the  States,  to  meet  at  Annapolis 
in  1786.  Only  five  States  responded,  and  the  delegates 
took  no  action  beyond  recommending  the  calling  of 
another  convention  to  meet  the  following  year,  at  Phila 
delphia,  to  revise  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  Congress 
approved  this  call,  and  all  the  States  except  Rhode  Island 
appointed  delegates.  In  the  mean  time,  Shays 's  Rebellion 
(§  276)  gave  a  tangible  proof  of  the  weakness  of  the  Con- 


T 78  THE   CONFEDERATION  [1787 

federation,  and  its  inability  to  give  effective  aid  to  a  State 
in  putting  down  domestic  insurrection. 

279.*  The  Federal  Convention  met  at  Philadelphia  in 
May,  1787,  and  chose  Washington,  who  was  a  delegate 
from  Virginia,  as  its  presiding  officer.  Each  State  seems 
to  have  taken  pains  to  send  its  ablest  men  as  representa 
tives,  and  the  convention  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  bodies  that  ever  met.  For  months,  in 
secret  session,  it  held  meetings,  argued,  and  settled  diffi 
culties.  More  than  once  it  was  on  the  point  of  breaking 
up  because  of  disagreements  among  its  members.  Most 
of  the  difficulty  came  from  what  were  then  "small 
States  ' '  —New  Hampshire,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Dela 
ware,  and  Maryland — which  wished  to  give  the  general 
government  as  little  power  as  possible,  for  fear  it  would 
oppress  and  injure  them.  This  objection  was  overcome 
by  providing  for  a  Senate  in  which  each  State  should  have 
equal  representation,  and  by  making  the  consent  of  the 
Senate  necessary  to  the  passage  of  laws.  Another  diffi 
culty  arose  in  the  unwillingness  of  northern  States  to  allow 
the  slaveholding  States  to  count  their  slaves  in  estimat 
ing  their  population  as  a  basis  for  representation  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  It  was  finally  agreed  that 
three  fifths  of  the  slaves  should  be  counted.  A  third 
compromise  protected  the  slave-trade  from  interference 
until  1808.  September  17,  1787,  the  convention  agreed 
upon  a  Constitution,  and  adjourned.  The  Constitution 
was  transmitted  to  Congress  for  submission  to  the  States, 
and  was  to  go  into  effect  when  approved  by  conventions 
in  nine  States. 

280.  The  Constitution  provided  for  a  general  govern 
ment  which  should  have  power  to  act,  and  not  simply  to 
advise  the  States.  It  was  to  be  in  three  departments:  a 
legislative  department,  or  Congress,  to  make  laws;  an 


1787]  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT  179 

executive  department,  the  President  and  his  officers,  to 
carry  out  and  enforce  the  laws  made  by  Congress ;  and  a 
judiciary  department,  the  federal  courts,  to  decide  dis 
puted  questions  under  the  laws.  The  Constitution  was 
to  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  to  be  obeyed  by  the 
general  government,  State  governments,  and  people.  If 
the  laws  passed  by  Congress  were  disobeyed,  the  general 
government  was  to  punish  the  offence :  Congress  was  to 
determine  the  punishment;  the  President's  officers  were 
to  arrest  the  offender;  and  the  federal  courts  were  to  try 
him.  But  the  punishment  was  always  to  be  determined 
by  Congress,  before  the  offence  was  committed. 

281.  The  Legislative  Department,  or  law-making  power, 
was  represented  by  a  Congress,  composed  of  two  branches, 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives.      Senators 
were  to  serve  for  six  years,  and  each  State,  large  or  small, 
was  to  choose  two.     Representatives  were  to  serve  for  two 
years,  and  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  States  according  to 
population,  large  States  thus   choosing  more,    and  small 
States  fewer.      The  two  Houses  together  were  authorized 
to   lay  taxes,    borrow   money,    regulate    commerce,   coin 
money,  establish  post-offices,  declare  war,  raise  and  sup 
port  armies  and  navies,   and  employ  militia  to  suppress 
insurrections ;  and  the  States  were  now  forbidden  to  do  any 
of  these  things,    except  to  lay  their  own  taxes,    borrow 
money  for  themselves,  and  employ  their  own  militia.    As  a 
general  rule,  a  majority  of  each  House  was  to  be  enough  to 
pass  a  law ;  but,  when  the   President  should  veto   (object 
to)  a  bill  within  ten  days  after  its   passage,  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House  was  necessary  to  make  it  a  law  (§  469, 
note).    Treaties  made  by  the  President  were  to  be  approved 
by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  before  going  into  effect. 

282.  The   Executive   Department,  or  power  to  execute 
the  laws  made   by  Congress,  was  represented  by  a  Presi- 


i So  THE   CONFEDERATION  [1787 

dent,  chosen  for  four  years  by  electors  whom  the  people 
were  to  choose  (§  295).  He  was  to  be  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  to  appoint  most  of  the 
public  officers ;  but  most  of  the  appointments  were  not  to 
take  effect  until  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  If  he  himself 
should  misbehave,  he  was  to  be  impeached  (accused)  by 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  tried  by  the  Senate.  If 
he  should  be  convicted  and  removed,  or  should  die,  resign, 
or  be  unable  to  perform  his  duties,  the  Vice-President 
was  to  take  his  place,  and  become  President.  Except 
in  this  case,  the  Vice-President  was  merely  to  preside 
over  the  Senate,  without  voting,  except  in  case  of  a  tie. 

283.  The  Judiciary  Department,  or  power  to  interpret  the 
laws  made  by  Congress,  was  represented  by  one  Supreme 
Court,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  should  estab 
lish.      The  judges  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  President 
and   Senate,  and   were   to   hold  office  for   life,   except  in 
case    of   misconduct.      Whenever    an    offence    should    be 
committed  against  a   law  of  Congress,    or  whenever  the 
meaning  of  a  law  should  be  in  doubt,  or  whenever  it  was 
claimed  that  the  Constitution  gave  Congress  no  power  to 
pass  the  law,  the  case  was,  generally,  to  be  tried  first  and 
decided  by  the  inferior  courts.      If  either  party  was  dis 
satisfied  with  the  decision,  he  could  appeal  to  the  Supreme 
Court,  whose  decision  was  to  be  final. 

284.  Other  Features. — Three-fifths  of  the  slaves  were  to 
be  counted  in  calculating  the  population  for  Representa 
tives.      Runaway  slaves  were  to  be  arrested  in  the  States 
to  which  they  should  flee,  and  returned  to  their  owners. 
Congress  was  to  govern  the  territory  of  the  United  States, 
and    admit    new    States    to   be    formed    from    it.      Three 
fourths  of  the  States  could  change    the    Constitution  by 
Amendments.      Each  State  was  to  be  guaranteed  by  the 
United  States  a  republican  form  of  government. 


1787]  FORMATION  OF  PARTIES  181 

285.*  Formation  of  Parties When  the  Constitution 

came  to  be  discussed  by  the  people,  before  the  election  of 
the  conventions  to  decide  upon  it,  two  opposing  political 
parties  were  at  once  formed.  The  people  had  hitherto 
known  very  little  of  any  governments  except  those  of  their 
States,  and  the  new  Constitution,  in  enlarging  the  powers 
of  the  Federal  Government,  necessarily  took  something 
from  the  powers  of  the  States.  Those  who  felt  that  the 
new  Federal  Government  was  absolutely  necessary  took 
the  name  of  Federalists,  and  supported  the  new  Constitu 
tion.  Those  who  feared  lest  the  State  governments  might 
suffer,  or  who  thought  the  proposed  national  govern 
ment  went  too  far,  took  the  name  of  Anti-Federalists,  and 
opposed  the  new  Constitution.  The  contest  lasted  for 
nearly  a  year.  Most  of  the  leading  men  of  the  country 
at  this  time  were  Federalists.  In  commending  the  Con 
stitution  to  the  thinking  people  of  the  country,  no  one 
rendered  so  great  a  service  as  Alexander  Hamilton. 
Hamilton,  although  but  thirty  years  old,  had  served  with 
credit  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  now  came  forward 
as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  political  writers.  In  a 
series  of  papers  known  as  the  Federalist,1  Hamilton 
showed  in  a  masterly  way  the  advantages  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  the  meaning  and  scope  of  its  provisions,  and  the 
benefits  likely  to  follow  the  adoption  of  it.  The  Federal 
ist  has  ever  since  been  considered  as  a  masterpiece  of 
legal  and  constitutional  exposition. 

286.  The  Adoption  of  the  Constitution  was  assured  by  the 
ratification  of  the  ninth  State,  New  Hampshire,  in  June, 
1788.  There  were  still  four  States  left.  Two  of  them, 
New  York  and  Virginia,  ratified  soon  afterward ;  the  other 
two,  Rhode  Island  and  North  Carolina,  refused  to  ratify, 
and  the  Constitution  went  into  force  without  their  assent. 

1  A  few  of  the  papers  under  that  title  were  written  by  Madison  and  Jay. 


1 82  THE  CONFEDERATION 

The  last  two  States  had  issued  paper  money,  and  disliked 
the  Constitution,  which  forbade  any  State  to  do  so  in 
future.  The  opposition  in  other  States  came  from  a  fear 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON. 


that  the  new  Federal  Government  was  given  too  much 
power.  To  remove  this  objection,  the  first  ten  Amend 
ments  to  the  Constitution  were  adopted  and  ratified  in 
1791  (§297). 


1789]  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN   1789  l83 

287.  Preparations  for   Inauguration. — As   soon   as    the 
ninth  State  had  ratified  the  Constitution,  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  appointed   March  4,    1789,  as  the  day 
on  which  the  new  government  should  go  into  operation, 
and  New  York  City  as  the  place.      It  also  named  a  day 
on  which  the  people  should  choose  electors,  and  another 
day  on  which  the  electors  should  meet  in  their  States  and 
vote  for  President  and   Vice-President.      When  the  votes 
of  the  electors  were  opened  and   counted,    it  was  found 
that  each  of  them,  sixty-nine  in   number,  had  cast  one  of 
his  two  votes  for  Washington,  so  that  Washington  became 
President  by  a  unanimous  vote.      Thirty-four  of  the  elec 
tors  had  cast  their  second  vote  for  John  Adams,  and  he 
became  Vice-President,   as  this  vote  was  next  largest  to 
that  for  Washington.1      From   this  time,  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  did   little  or  nothing  further.      All  men 
were  waiting  anxiously  to  see  whether  the  new  govern 
ment  was  to  be  good  or  bad. 

(3)   State  of  the   Country. 

288.  The  Country  was  still   very  thinly  settled,  and  the 
whole  of  it  did   not  contain  as   many  inhabitants  as  the 
single  State  of  New  York  did  in  1880.     There  were  hardly 
any  important  towns   except  on  the   coast,  and   none   of 
these  were  such  as  we  are  accustomed  to  call  cities.      The 
largest  American  cities  of  that  time,  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Charleston,  had  hardly  more  than  20,000 
persons  in  any  of  them,  and  other  towns  were  only  small 
collections   of  houses.      The  streets  were    poorly  paved, 
dirty,  and  rarely  lighted  at  night.      Some  of  the  houses 
were  large  and  well  furnished,  but  none  of  them  had  the 
conveniences  that  are  so  common  now.      There  were  no 

1  The    manner  of  voting  for    President    and   Vice-President   was    slightly 
changed  in  1804  (§  323). 


184  THE   CONFEDERATION  [1789 

lucifer-matches,  no  gas,  no  oil-lamps.  Water  was  every 
where  carried  from  the  town  pump  or  well.  The  richest 
people  labored  under  difficulties  which  are  almost  unknown 
now,  and  the  life  of  the  poor  was  very  hard.1 

289.  The  People  generally  lived  outside  of  the  cities,  on 
farms,  where  life  was  still  harder  than  in  the  cities.      It 
was  not  easy  to  work  with  wooden  ploughs,  and  without 
any  of  the  farming  tools  and  machinery  which  have  since 
been  introduced ;  and  the  farmer  who  raised  more  than  he 
wanted  found  it  difficult  to  sell  his  surplus.     Nearly  every 
thing  used  by  the  farmer  and  his  family,  even  their  cloth 
ing,    was   made  at  home ;    and   a   New   England   farmer 
usually  spent  very  little  money  during  the  year  for  things 
not  produced  on  his  farm.      In  the  Middle  States  and  the 
South  life  was  easier,  for  crops  cost  less  labor,  and  were 
easily  sold  for  ready  money;   but  even  here  the  farm  or 
plantation  grew  almost  everything  that  was  used.      News 
papers  and  books  were  very   scarce;    there   were  hardly 
any   amusements,    except  hunting  and    fishing;     and   life 
consisted  mainly  in  work  and  rest. 

290,  Travelling  was  slow,  difficult,  and  often  dangerous. 
Along  the  coast,  sailing-vessels  were  the  usual   means  of 
travel,  and  a  contrary  wind   might  delay  the  traveller  for 
weeks.      The   voyage   from   New  York    to  Albany   often 
required  two  weeks.      The  stage-coaches  were   slow  and 
clumsy.      They   took   from   two  to   three  days    (as  many 
days  as  the  railroad  takes  hours)  to  go  from  New  York  to 
Philadelphia,  and  a  week  to  go  from  New  York  to  Boston. 
The  roads  were  exceedingly  bad ;   there  were  still  hardly 
any  bridges;    and  the    rivers  were  crossed  by  means  of 

1  The  life  of  the  poor  man  was  made  still  harder  <han  now  because  of  the 
law  of  imprisonment  for  debt.  He  who  owed  money  and  was  unable  to  pay 
could  be  arrested  and  kept  in  prison,  while  his  wife  and  children  were  left  to 
care  for  themselves  as  well  as  they  could. 


1789]  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NORTHWEST  185 

clumsy  and  dangerous  flat-boats.  There  was  more  danger 
then  in  a  voyage  from  New  York  City  to  Brooklyn  or  New 
Jersey  than  there  is  now  in  a  voyage  round  the  world. 

291.  Settlement  had  not  yet  spread  far  from  the  coast. 
Beyond  Schenectady,  the  whole  State  of  New  York  was 
still  an  Indian  hunting-ground.      The  great  coal  and  iron 
fields  of  Pennsylvania  were  almost  unknown.      Along  the 
coast  to  the  southward,  the   country  was  settled  only  up 
to  the  headwaters  of  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Atlantic. 
Between  the  Alleghanies  and  the   Mississippi,  the  whole 
country  was  a  wilderness,  excepting  the  few  settlements 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  (§  157).      The  northwest  was 
almost  entirely  an    Indian  territory;    and   Ohio  and  the 
present    States    northwest    of   it  were    less    known    than 
Alaska  is  now. 

292.  Land  Companies  led  the  way  in  the  settlement  of 
the  northwest.      Many  of  them  were  made  up  of  former 
soldiers  of  the  Revolution,  who  wished  to   settle  in  Ohio 
and  found  it  safer  to  unite  for  mutual   protection  against 
the  Indians.     One  of  the  first  of  these,  the  Ohio  Company, 
was   formed    in    1787;    and,    partly   in    order    to    give   it 
encouragement,  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  passed 
the  Ordinance  of  1787,  for  the  government  of  the  region; 
and  this  was  confirmed  by  Congress   under  the  Constitu 
tion.      The  company  began  the   settlement  of  Ohio  in  the 
following  year,    at  Marietta.      Cincinnati,    at    first    called 
Losantiville,  was  founded  in  the  same  year  (1788). 

293.  The  Leading  Events  of  this  period  were  as  follows : 

1781-9:  The  Confederation §  269 

1781  :  The  Articles  of  Confederation  go  into 

force 270 

1783  :   Peace  with  Great  Britain 263 

1784  :   Land  cession  by  Virginia 273 

1786  :  The  Annapolis  Convention 278 

Shays's  Rebellion 276 


1 86  THE  CONFEDERATION  [J789 

1787:  The    Federal    Convention    forms     the 

Constitution §  279 

The  Ordinance  of   1787  adopted 274 

1788:  Ratification  of  the  Constitution 286 

Settlement  begun  in  Ohio 292 

1789:   The  Constitution  goes  into  force  ....      287 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Why  may  the    years    1781-1787  be    called  the  "critical 
period  "  of  American  history  ? 

2.  Proposed  amendments  to  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

3.  The  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  a  particular  State 
(e.g. ,  New  York). 

4.  The  meeting-places  of  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — The  Articles  of  Confederation  and  the  Ordinance 
of  1787  are  in  MacDonald's  Select  Documents,  Nos.  2  and  4; 
for  the  text  of  the  Constitution,  see  Appendix  II.,  this  volume. 
The  Journals  of  Congress,  1774-1788,  give  somewhat  meagre 
accounts  of  proceedings;  there  are  also  the  Secret  Journals  for 
the  same  period.  The  proceedings  of  the  constitutional  con 
vention,  and  of  the  conventions  in  the  several  States,  are  to  be 
found  in  Elliot 's  Debates.  There  are  numerous  editions  of  the 
Federalist,  the  latest  being  that  of  Ford.  The  writings  of  public 
men  continue  to  be  from  this  time  sources  of  the  utmost 
importance. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  best  concise  account  is  Fiske's 
Critical  Period  of  American  History.  Bancroft's  work  ends 
with  1789,  but  the  elaborate  histories  of  Curtis,  McMaster, 
Schouler,  and  Von  Hoist  now  become  available.  On  the 
finances  of  the  Confederation  see  Sumner's  Financier  and 
Finances  of  the  Revolution  and  History  of  American  Currency, 
and  Bolles's  Financial  History  of  the  United  States.  On  the 
Northwest  Ordinance  and  public  lands  see  Hinsdale's  Old 
Northwest,  King's  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Rufus  King,  and 
Cutler's  Life  and  Journals  of  Manas  s  eh  Cutler.  The  slavery 
restriction  in  the  Ordinance  is  discussed  at  length  in  the  works 
of  Wilson,  Greeley,  Stephens,  and  others  cited  under  Chapters 
XVII.  and  XVIII. ,  post.  Roosevelt's  Winning  of  the  West  is 
the  best  comprehensive  work  on  the  settlement  of  the  west  and 


1789]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  187 

the  formation  of  new  States.  The  best  account  of  the  present 
working  of  government  under  the  Constitution  is  Bryce's 
American  Commonwealth.  Important  biographies,  in  addition 
to  those  previously  cited,  are:  Morse's  Hamilton;  Gay's  Madi 
son;  Rives's  Madison;  Austin's  Elbridge  Gerry;  Stille's  Dickin 
son;  Lodge's  Cabot. 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 


CHAPTER    XI 

FEDERALIST    CONTROL 

1789-1801 

(I)    WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:  1789-1797 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  Va.,  President.     JOHN  ADAMS,  Mass.,  Vice-President. 

294.*  Inauguration. — The  new  government  was  to  have 
been  organized  at  New  York  City,  March  4,  1789;  but 
travelling  was  slow  and  difficult,  and  the  members  of 
Congress  from  distant  States  did  not  arrive  for  several 
weeks.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  them  had  assembled, 
the  votes  of  the  electors  were  counted,  and  Washington 
was  notified  of  his  election  as  President.  He  journeyed 
slowly  northward  from  his  home  in  Virginia  to  New  York, 
receiving  enthusiastic  greetings  from  the  people  on  the 
way ;  and  on  April  30  was  sworn  into  office  by  the  chief 
judge  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  the  presence  of  Con 
gress  and  a  great  number  of  spectators.1  No  man  was 
so  well  fitted  as  Washington  to  be  the  first  executive  head 
of  the  new  republic.  He  was  in  his  fifty-eighth  year,  and 
from  early  manhood  his  life  had  been  mainly  passed  in  the 
public  service.  In  the  important  positions  to  which  he 
had  been  successively  called,  his  services  were  seen  to  be 
indispensable;  yet  he  accepted  each  call  with  great  reluc 
tance,  and  with  anxious  fear  lest  he  might  prove  a  failure. 

1  The  building  («  Federal  Hall  ")  in  which  the  ceremony  took  place  was 
on  Wall  Street,  where  the  Subtreasury  now  stands. 

189 


190  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [!789 

He  was  one  of  the  richest  men  in  America,  and  an 
aristocrat  by  birth,  position,  and  inclination;  and  he  did 
much  to  commend  the  new  government  to  the  wealthy 
and  aristocratic  classes.  On  the  other  hand,  his  dignity, 
self-control,  sympathy,  and  unfailing  judgment  made  him 
revered  by  the  masses  of  the  people,  who  looked  upon  him 
as  a  great  leader,  in  whose  hands  the  affairs  of  the  nation 
were  safe. 

295,  The  Electoral  System. — The  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States  are  not  elected  directly  by 
the  people.      When  we  read  that  a  candidate  has  received 
a    majority   of   several    hundred    thousand   votes    for   the 
Presidency,    it   does    not  mean  that  he  is    elected ;    if  he 
receives  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes,    he  is  elected 
even  though  his  opponent  should  have  more  popular  votes 
than  he.      Each  State  chooses  as  many  electors  as  it  has 
Senators    and    Representatives   together ;    and   whichever 
party  gains  a  majority  of  these  electors  secures  the  Presi 
dent  and   Vice-President.      At  first,  each  elector  merely 
named  two  persons,  and  the  highest  two  names  on  the 
list  of  those  voted  for  became  President  and  Vice-Presi 
dent.      In    1804   (§  323),  this  was  changed  so  that  each 
elector  now  votes  for  one  person  for  President  and  one  for 
Vice-President.     At  first,  too,  the  electors  voted  for  whom 
they  chose ;  but  after  the  first  two  elections,  it  became  the 
custom  for  the  electors  to  vote  only  for  the  men  nominated 
by  their  party,  and  it  would  now  be  considered  extremely 
dishonorable  for  an  elector  to  vote  for  any  one  else. 

296.  The  Cabinet. — The  chief  officers  of  the  principal 
departments  are  called  the  Cabinet,   though  there  is  no 
such  word  in   the   Constitution.      In  Washington's  time, 
there  were  four  of  these  departments,  which  he  filled  as 
follows:   Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  Jefferson;   Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton  ;  Secretary  of  War, 


1789]  ORGANIZING    THE   GOVERNMENT  191 

Henry  Knox,  of  Massachusetts;  Attorney-General,  Ed 
mund  Randolph,  of  Virginia.  The  Navy  Department 
was  added  in  1798  (§319);  it  had  previously  been  a  part 
of  the  War  Department.  The  Post-office  Department 
was  added  in  1829;  it  had  previously  been  a  part  of  the 
Treasury  Department.  In  1849,  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  was  organized  (§  520).  In  1870,  the  Department 
of  Justice  was  made  an  independent  department.  The 
eighth  and  last  department,  that  of  Agriculture,  was 
added  in  1889,  so  that  there  are  now  eight  members  of 
the  Cabinet. 

297.  Congress  then  proceeded  to  pass  the  laws  necessary 
to  put  the  new  form  of  government  into  active  operation. 
This  was  a  work  of  the  greatest  difficulty,  for  everything 
had  to  be  done  anew ;  but  it  was  done  so  skilfully  that  it 
has  since  been  necessary  to  change  it  very  little,  except 
by  enlarging  its  operation.  Much  of  the  credit  for  plan 
ning  it  must  be  given  to  Hamilton.  While  this  work  was 
going  on,  the  new  Constitution  was  ratified  by  North 
Carolina  in  1789,  and  by  Rhode  Island  in  1790  (§  286); 
so  that  the  original  thirteen  States  were  now  all  under  the 
' '  new  roof, ' '  as  the  Constitution  had  been  called.  Twelve 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution  were  proposed  by  Con 
gress;  and  ten  of  them,  having  been  ratified  by  three 
fourths  of  the  States,  became  a  part  of  the  Constitution. 

298.*  Organizing  the  Government. — The  old  Confedera 
tion  had  been  so  little  respected  during  the  last  months  of 
its  existence  that  people  had  little  interest  in  remembering 
what  it  had  tried  to  do ;  and  Congress  now  had  before  it 
the  task  of  organizing  the  new  government  from  the 
beginning.  It  is  the  lasting  honor  of  the  Federalists,  who 
controlled  both  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representa 
tives,  that  they  so  .performed  this  work  that  the  lines  they 
laid  down  are  the  ones  which,  in  the  main,  have  been 


192  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [1789 

followed  ever  since.  The  three  executive  departments, 
State,  Treasury,  and  War,  were  organized  and  their 
duties  defined.  The  Supreme  Court,  provided  for  by  the 
Constitution,  was  established,  together  with  three  circuit 
courts  and  thirteen  district  courts;  thus  bringing  the 
judicial  system  of  the  United  States  within  easy  reach  of 
all  parts  of  the  country.  An  Attorney-General,  to  act  as 
a  legal  adviser  to  the  government,  was  provided  for,  and 
the  incumbent  soon  became  a  member  of  the  so-called 
"  Cabinet.  "  The  organization  of  the  judicial  system  was 
especially  important,  because  the  judiciary  had  been  very 
weak  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  and  the  United 
States  had  had  no  legal  means,  as  it  now  had,  of  enforc 
ing  its  acts  and  making  effective  the  powers  granted  to 
it.  John  Jay  was  the  first  chief-justice,  but  it  was  some 
years  before  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  decisions  of 
great  importance. 

299.*  Financial  Measures. — One  of  the  most  important 
questions,  and  in  many  ways  the  most  difficult,  to  be 
dealt  with  was  that  of  finance.  The  debt  of  the  United 
States,  including  unpaid  interest,  was  estimated  at  about 
$54,000,000;  that  of  the  States,  at  about  $25,000,000. 
The  annual  interest  charge  on  the  combined  debt  would 
amount  to  over  $4,500,000.  It  was  necessary  to  provide 
for  the  payment  of  this  debt,  if  the  credit  of  the  United 
States  was  to  be  maintained;  but  the  prospect  of  doing 
so,  in  view  of  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  country, 
seemed  dark.  The  financial  genius  of  Hamilton,  who 
early  showed  himself  the  strongest  member  of  the  Cabinet, 
proved  its  power  in  no  direction  more  distinctly  than  in 
meeting  and  overcoming  these  difficulties.  Hamilton 
proposed  to  pay  the  foreign  and  domestic  debt  in  full, 
including  the  arrears  of  interest,  and  to  have  the  United 
States  assume  the  Revolutionary  debts  of  the  States.  The 


1 790]  NATIONAL   BANK  193 

first  part  of  the  plan  was  accepted  without  difficulty,  but 
the  proposed  assumption  of  the  State  debts  aroused  strong 
opposition.  Some  of  the  States  had  made  large  payments 
on  their  debt,  while  others  had  paid  nothing ;  and  it  was 
charged  that  the  general  assumption  of  these  debts  would 
be  grossly  unfair.  The  matter  was  further  complicated 
by  a  controversy  over  the  location  of  the  national  capital. 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  were  rival  claimants  for  the 
honor,  and  neither  side  was  disposed  to  yield  to  the  other. 
Hamilton,  with  Jefferson's  aid,  finally  arranged  a  com 
promise,  by  which,  in  return  for  enough  votes  to  carry 
through  the  assumption  plan,  Philadelphia  was  to  be  the 
capital  for  ten  years,  but  after  that  time  the  capital  was  to 
be  located  on  the  Potomac.  To  meet  the  annual  charge 
for  interest  on  the  debt,  Hamilton  proposed  a  scheme  of 
duties  on  imports  and  on  some  articles  of  domestic  pro 
duction;  and  this  also  was  adopted. 

300.*  National  Bank. — As  a  further  aid  to  putting  the 
finances  of  the  government  on  a  firm  basis,  Hamilton,  in 
1790,  proposed  the  incorporation  of  a  national  bank. 
The  opposition  which  had  developed  over  the  assumption 
scheme  broke  out  with  renewed  violence  in  Congress,  and 
was  taken  up  in  the  country.  The  relations  between 
Hamilton  and  Jefferson,  meantime,  had  become  strained, 
and  served  to  increase  the  opposition.  The  Constitution 
says  nothing  about  a  bank ;  but  Hamilton  argued  that  a 
bank  was  a  customary  and  useful  means  of  assisting 
national  credit,  and  since  it  was  not  forbidden  by  the 
Constitution,  Congress  might  rightfully  create  a  bank  as 
a  means  ''necessary  and  proper"  for  the  execution  of 
powers  explicitly  granted.  This  "broad  construction" 
of  the  Constitution  was  strongly  opposed  by  Jefferson. 
Washington  was  in  doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  signing 
the  bill,  and  called  for  the  written  opinions  of  the  mem- 


194  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [i79J 

bers  of  the  Cabinet.  Hamilton's  opinion,  with  which 
Washington  concurred,  still  remains  one  of  the  clearest 
and  most  convincing  expositions  of  the  doctrine  of  ' k  im 
plied  powers"  ever  wrritten.  The  bank  was  at  once 
established,  and  had  a  prosperous  career  until  1811,  when 
its  charter  expired  by  limitation. 

301.*  Slavery. — It  will  be  remembered  that  slavery  and 
the  slave-trade  had  been  the  occasions  of  two  of  the  com 
promises  agreed  upon  by  the  constitutional  convention 
in  1787.  There  was  as  yet  no  general  discussion  of 
slavery  as  an  institution,  nor  any  general  desire  to  inter 
fere  with  it.  But  in  1790  the  subject  came  before  Con 
gress  in  such  a  way  as  to  compel  Congress  to  decide  upon 
the  principles  it  would  follow  in  dealing  with  the  matter. 
Certain  memorials  from  societies  in  Pennsylvania  and  New 
York,  praying  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  were 
presented  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  In  response, 
the  House  declared  that  it  could  not,  under  the  Constitu 
tion,  lawfully  prohibit  the  slave-trade  until  1808,  although 
it  could  prohibit  American  citizens  from  engaging  in  the 
African  trade  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  foreigners  writh 
slaves;  and  that  it  had  no  authority  to  emancipate  slaves, 
or  interfere  with  the  treatment  of  them  by  any  State. 
These  principles  were  consistently  adhered  to  by  Congress 
for  more  than  seventy  years. 

302.  New  States. — Two  of  the  "old  thirteen  "  States, 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island,  which  had  not  at  first 
ratified  the  Constitution,  ratified  it  during  Washington's 
first  term,  and  thus  made  the  original  States  unanimous. 
But  the  State  system  was  not  to  stop  here.  In  1791, 
Vermont  (§  65)  was  admitted  as  a  State,  with  the  same 
privileges  of  self-government  as  the  "old  thirteen." 
Then,  in  1792,  came  Kentucky,  which  had  been  a  part 
of  Virginia,  but  which  Virginia  was  now  willing  to  allow 


I792]  FEDERALISTS  AND  REPUBLICANS  195 

to  govern  itself  as  a  State.  This  was  followed,  in  1796, 
by  Tennessee,  which  had  been  a  part  of  North  Carolina, 
so  that  there  were  sixteen  States  in  the  Union  when 
Washington's  administrations  were  ended. 

303.  Political  Contest  did  not  occur  for  some  time.     The 
Anti-Federalists  (§  285)  had  broken  up,  for  the  peace  and 
quiet  which  followed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  had 
for  a  time  silenced  all  opposition  to  it.     But  many  of  those 
who   had   been   Federalists  began  to  be  alarmed  by  the 
strength   shown   by   the    new   government.      They    \vere 
anxious  to  keep  the  State  governments  strong  and  vigor 
ous,  for  they  believed  that  good  government  was  in  most 
cases  surer  from  the  States,  each  of  which  best  knew  the 
needs  of  its  own  people ;  and  they  began  to  fear  that  the 
new   Federal    Government  would   grow   so   strong  as  to 
destroy  the  States.      About   1792,  they  took  the  name  of 
the   Republican   party.      Washington   himself  was   not   a 
party  man,  but  his  sympathies  were  with  the  Federalists. 
It  was  not  long  before  his  Cabinet  (§  296)  was  divided  by 
the   new   feeling:    Jefferson   and    Randolph    became    the 
Republican  leaders,  and  Hamilton  and  Knox  the  Federal 
ist  leaders. 

304.  The  Two  Parties  were  thus  the  Federalists  and  the 
Republicans.1      Both  parties    desired    good    government: 
but  the  Federalists  thought  that  this  could  best  be  obtained 
through     the     Federal     Government;     the    Republicans, 
through  the  State  governments.      The  Federalists  wished 
the  laws  to   give  as   much,  and  the   Republicans  as  little, 
power    as    possible    to    the    Federal    Government.      The 
Federalists    were     more     numerous    in     the     North,    the 

1  The  name  Republican  was  gradually  changed,  in  the  next  twenty  years, 
to  Democratic,  which  is  still  the  name  of  the  party.  The  present  Republican 
party  is  not  the  original  party  of  that  name,  but  is  more  like  the  old  Federalist 
party. 


I96  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [1792 

Republicans  in  the  South.  The  Federalists  were  more 
numerous  among-  the  merchants,  business  men,  and  com 
mercial  classes;  the  Republicans,  among  the  farmers. 
Finally,  the  Federalists  inclined  somewhat  toward  English 
ideas  of  government;  the  Republicans,  a  great  deal 
toward  France,  and  the  right  of  all  men  to  share  in  the 
government.  'When  the  time  came  for  the  second  Presi 
dential  election,  in  1792,  the  Republicans  had  not  grown 
sufficiently  to  contest  the  election  warmly.  All  the 
electors  again  voted  for  Washington  ;  and  John  Adams, 
who  was  a  Federalist,  received  the  next  largest  number 
of  votes,  and  was  re-elected  Vice-President. 

305.  The  French  Revolution  began  in  1789.      For  more 
than  I  50  years,  the  French  kings  had  ruled  by  their  own 
will.      All  this  time  the  people  of  France  were  grievously 
misgoverned,  and  were  taxed  so  heavily,  for  the  luxurious 
support  of  the  king  and   nobles,  that  they  could  hardly 
find   means  to  live.      Affairs  finally  became  so  bad  that 
the  king  was  compelled  to  call  the  States  General  together 
again,  to  consult  about  raising  money.      When   it  met,  it 
gradually  began  to  take  all  the  power  to  itself;  and  in  the 
next  few  years  it  abolished  the  former  government,  drove 
the  nobles  out  of  the  country,  put  the  king  and  queen  to 
death,  and  engaged  in  a  general  Avar  against  the  neigh 
boring  kingdoms  of  Europe.      Great  Britain  was  its  prin 
cipal  enemy,  and  there  was  very  little  peace  between  the 
two  countries  until  1815. 

306.  Genet's   Mission. — France,    now    a    republic,    ex 
pected   help  from   the   United    States   in   its   war  against 
England.      A  treaty  had  been  made  between  France  and 
the  United  States  in  1778,  and  France  had  greatly  aided 
this   country  during  the 'Revolution.      The    British  navy 
was  far  the   most  powerful  in  the  world,  and  was  able  to 
shut  up  the  French  vessels  in  their  own  ports ;  but  France 


1793]  THE   WHISKEY  INSURRECTION  19 7 

hoped  to  attack  her  enemy  from  America.  In  1793,  the 
French  Government  sent  a  minister,  Genet,  to  the  United 
States,  to  fit  out  privateers  (§  240)  in  American  ports 
against  British  commerce.  It  was  impossible  for  the 
United  States  to  allow  this  to  be  done  without  joining  in 
the  war  against  Great  Britain,  and  Washington  firmly 
prevented  it,  and  in  addition  issued  a  proclamation  declar 
ing  the  purpose  of  the  United  States  to  remain  neutral 
during  the  war.  The  issuance  of  the  proclamation  greatly 
offended  France.  Genet  was  troublesome  and  insolent 
all  through  the  year,  and  was  then  recalled  by  France, 
at  Washington's  request. 

307.  The  Whiskey  Insurrection One  of  the  laws  passed 

by  Congress  laid   a  tax  on  whiskey.      The  roads   in  the 
United  States  were  at  that  time  so  bad  that  the  settlers  in 
the  western   part  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  could  not 
carry  their  grain  to  market  without  paying  for  the  carrying 
more  than  they  could  sell  it  for.     They  had  therefore  been 
in  the  habit  of  turning  it  into  whiskey,  which  had  greater 
value  for  its  bulk  than  the  grain  from  which  it  was  made, 
and  was  more  easily  carried.      They  disliked  to  pay  the 
new  tax,  and,  in  1794,  their  resistance  became  so  angry 
that  Washington  was  compelled  to  send   a  small  force  of 
militia  to  Pittsburgh  to  restore  order.      The  disturbance 
was  known  as  the  Whiskey  Insurrection. 

308.  Indian  Wars  followed  the  entrance  of  settlers  into 
Ohio.      In    1790,    the   Indians   began   to   attack   the   new 
settlements.     General  Harmar  Avas  sent  against  them,  and 
was  badly  defeated  near  the  place  where  the  city  of  Fort 
Wayne   now   stands.      In   1791,  General   St.    Clair   made 
another  attempt;   and  he  was  also  surprised  and  defeated 
near  the  headwaters  of  the  Wabash  River.      The  Indians 
now  demanded,  as  the  price  of  peace,  that  no  settlements 
should  ever   be  made  on  their  side  of  the   Ohio   River. 


198  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [1796 

But,  in  1794,  General  Anthony  Wayne  (§  237)  led  an 
expedition  into  the  Indian  country.  The  Indians  could 
not  surprise  him,  and  in  a  battle,  near  the  present  city  of 
Toledo,  he  inflicted  a  total  defeat  upon  them.  They  then 
made  a  treaty  by  which  they  gave  up  forever  the  present 
State  of  Ohio. 

309.  Jay's  Treaty. — The  United  States  had  had  many 
reasons    to    be    dissatisfied    with     Great    Britain.       Great 
Britain  still  held  Detroit  and  other  forts  in  the  Northwest, 
though  it  had  promised   to    give   them  up   (§  263) ;    and 
British   officers   there  were   believed   to   have  helped   the 
Indians  against  the   United  States.      English  vessels  on 
the  ocean  were  in   the  habit  of  seizing  American  vessels 
which  attempted  to  trade  with  any  country  with  which 
England  was  at  war.      To  prevent  war,  Chief-Justice  Jay 
was  sent  to  Great  Britain,  and,  in  1794,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  that  country.      It  provided  for  the  surrender  of  the 
northwestern    forts,    and   for   the    payment    of  American 
claims  for  damages ;  but,  as  it  gave  some  new  advantages 
to  Great  Britain  and  did  not  mention  some  of  the  points 
in  dispute,  it  excited  great  opposition  in  the  United  States. 
It  proved,  however,  to  be  sufficient  to  settle  the  difficulties 
between  the  two  countries  for  about  ten  years  (§  343). 

310.  Washington  refused  to  be  a  candidiate  for  a  third 
term  of  office   as   President;    and,   in    1796,    he   issued   a 
Farewell    Address    to    the   American   people.      It    urged 
them  to  make  religion,  education,  and  public   good  faith 
the  foundations  of  their  government,   to    remain  united, 
and  to  resist  foreign  influence.      It  was  not  meant  for  the 
American  people  of  that  time  alone,  and  its  advice  will 
never   cease   to   be  valuable.      At   the  end   of  his   term, 
Washington  retired  to  his  plantation  of  Mount  Vernon,  in 
eastern  Virginia,   where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life  as  a  private  citizen  (§  325). 


796] 


PROSPERITY  OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 


199 


311.  The  Presidential  Election  in  1796  was  warmly  con 
tested  by  the  two  parties.  The  Federalists  voted  for 
Adams,  and  the  Republicans  for  Jefferson.  Adams 


MOUNT  VERNON. 

was  elected  President,  most  of  his  electoral  votes  coming 
from  Northern  States,  while  Jefferson's  came  from  South 
ern  States.  Jefferson  stood  next  to  Adams  in  the  vote, 
and  thus  became  Vice-President. 

312.  The  Prosperity  of  the  United  States  had  increased 
during  these  eight  years,  with  order  and  better  govern 
ment.  Commerce  had  grown,  because  the  wars  in  Europe 
left  trade  mainly  to  American  vessels.  The  American 
flag  began  to  be  known  in  distant  seas;  and  in  1790,  the 
Boston  ship  Columbia,  Captain  Gray,  made  the  first 
American  voyage  around  the  world.  Manufactures  had 
also  revived,  and  patents  began  to  be  issued.  In  I793» 
the  mint  sent  out  its  first  coins,  about  11,000  copper 
cents;  and  in  1795,  gold  coins  were  issued.  To  take  the 
place  of  the  old  and  poor  roads,  turnpike-roads  began  to 


200  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [1793 

be  built  from  a  few  of  the  principal  cities;  they  were 
carefully  laid  out,  and  the  cost  of  maintaining-  them  was 
paid  by  tolls  collected  from  travellers.  Two  small  canals 
were  dug  in  New  England  ;  and  the  first  attempts  were 


FITCH'S  STEAMBOAT. 

made,  by  John  Fitch  and  others,  to  move  boats  by  steam. 
They  were  not  successful,  but  they  led  the  way  to 
Fulton's  success  (§  337). 

313,  The  Weakness  of  the  United  States. — The  country, 
however,  was  not  yet  by  any  means  great  or  strong.  It 
was  not  rich ;  its  government  was  heavily  in  debt ;  and  as 
it  was  very  difficult  to  put  aside  money  enough  to  equip 
an  army  or  build  war-vessels,  foreign  nations  did  not  care 
much  for  its  friendship.  Its  population,  by  the  first  census 
(in  1790),  was  ascertained  to  be  3,929,214.  This  was 
not  nearly  as  many  as  there  were  in  I  890  in  the  State  of 
New  York  alone,  or  in  Pennsylvania  (Appendix  IV.). 
The  States  of  Ohio  and  Illinois,  which  had  hardly  any 
white  population  in  1790,  had  each  nearly  as  large  a 
population  in  1890  as  the  whole  United  States  had  in 
1790.  Any  one  of  these  four  States  would  now  be  a 
more  dangerous  enemy  to  a  foreign  nation  of  the  power 
of  Great  Britain  in  1 790  than  the  whole  United  States  was 
then. 


J795]  WESTERN  DEVELOPMENT  201 

314.  The  West  had  fairly  begun  to  grow.  The  roads 
to  Ohio,  whither  most  emigrants  went,  were  still  very 
poor,  and  the  settlers,  before  reaching  their  new  homes, 
were  obliged  to  journey  through  a  wilderness  in  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  down  a  river  infested  with  Indians.  These 
difficulties,  however,  could  not  check  immigration.  The 
towns  of  Cincinnati,  Marietta,  Chillicothe,  and  Cleveland 
had  been  founded ;  and  from  this  time  the  Northwest 
grew  rapidly  in  population  and  wealth.  In  1793,  the  first 


CINCINNATI  IN  1787  (Fort  Washington). 

newspaper  in  the  northwest  was  issued  at  Cincinnati,  while 
it  was  yet  a  town  of  about  a  hundred  log-cabins.  In  1794, 
two  large  passenger-boats  ran  regularly  between  Pitts 
burgh  and  Cincinnati.  They  were  moved  by  oars,  had 
bullet-proof  sides,  and  were  armed  with  cannon  to  protect 
them  from  the  Indians. 

315.  The  Mississippi  Treaty The  people  of  Tennessee 

and  Kentucky  had  been  very  much  troubled  by  the 
Spaniards,  who  claimed  to  own  the  lower  part  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  as  well  as  the  country  beyond  it.  In 
1795,  a  treaty  with  Spain  was  made  by  the  United  States: 
it  allowed  both  nations  to  use  the  river.  Thus  the 
American  settlers  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  in  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  were  able  to  send  their  crops  to  market 
in  the  Spanish  city  of  New  Orleans.1 

1  Western  rivers  were  only  half  useful  to  settlers  until  steam  was  introduced, 


202  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [i?97 

316.  The  South  was  even  more  prosperous  than  the  rest 
of  the  country.  It  had  produced,  up  to  this  time,  mainly 
indigo,  rice,  tar,  and  tobacco.  Cotton  had  been  tried, 
but  was  not  profitable,  for  its  seeds  stuck  to  it  so  closely 
that  a  slave  could  clean  but  five  or  six  pounds  in  a  day. 
In  1793,  Eli  Whitney,  a  Connecticut  teacher  living  in 
Georgia,  invented  the  saw-gin,  in  which  revolving  teeth 
dragged  the  cotton  between  parallel  wires,  leaving  the 
seeds  behind.  With  this  machine,  a  slave  could  clean  a 
thousand  pounds  of  cotton  in  a  day.  The  cultivation  of 
cotton  at  once  became  very  profitable,  and  increased 
enormously.  But,  unfortunately,  negro  slavery  also 
became  far  more  important  to  the  South,  and  there  was 
now  little  likelihood  of  its  dying  out  there,  as  it  was  in  the 
North  (§  1 88). 

(II)  JOHN  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION:  1797-1801 

JOHN  ADAMS,  Mass.,  President.     THOMAS  JEFFERSON,  Va.,  Vice-President. 

317.*  The  New  President. — John  Adams  was  undoubt 
edly  one  of  the  ablest'  men  in  the  Federalist  party.  He 
had  had  long  experience  in  public  life.  He  had  been  one 
of  the  foremost  leaders  in  the  Revolution,  and  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was  the  first  American 
minister  to  Great  Britain  and  the  Netherlands,  returning 
from  diplomatic  service  to  become  Vice-President.  He 
was  honest  and  sincere ;  but  he  had  come  to  have  a  pro 
found  dislike  of  a  weak  national  government,  and  wanted 
to  see  the  new  Federal  Government  still  more  strongly 
administered.  Unfortunately,  he  had  little  tact  in  dealing 

for  boats  could  not  easily  be  rowed  against  the  current.  When  cargoes  were 
sent  in  flat-boats  down  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans,  the  boats  were  usually 
broken  up  and  sold  as  lumber,  and  the  sailors  walked  or  rode  back  up  the 
river-bank. 


798] 


DIFFICULTIES    WITH  FRANCE 


203 


with  men  of  opposing  views,  and  did  not  get  on  well  with 
the    Federalist  leaders,    and  particularly  with   Hamilton, 
whose     financial     success 
had  given  him   great  in 
fluence  with  the  commer 
cial  and  moneyed  classes. 
Adams's  term  began  with 
success,    and   ended   with 
failure. 

318.  Difficulties     with 
France     filled     much     of 
Adams's    administration. 
The  French  Government 
was  controlled   by  a  few 
unusually     selfish      men, 
who     were    at    war    with 
most   of    the   world,    and 
were  determined   that  the 
United   States  should  pay 
them  money  for  the  privi 
lege  of  remaining  at  peace.      They  turned  the  American 
minister    out  of   the   country;    passed    laws  which   made 
American    commerce  difficult    and    dangerous;    and    en 
couraged  their  naval  officers  to  capture  American  vessels 
and  cargoes.      When  special  ministers  were  sent  by  Presi 
dent  Adams  to  remonstrate,  they  were  told  plainly  that 
these  proceedings  would  not  be  stopped  until  the  men  who 
controlled  the  French  Government  were  paid  a  large  sum 
of  money  as  a  bribe  for  peace.      The  American  ministers 
answered  that  they  would  spend    ' '  millions  for  defence, 
not   one   cent   for   tribute  ' '  ;    and  the    American    people 
backed  them  heartily  and  prepared  for  war. 

319.  War  with  France,  though  not  formally  declared, 
really  took  up  the  last  half  of  the  year  1798.      Congress 


JOHN  ADAMS. 


204  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [*799 

met,  set  aside  the  treaties  with  France,  formed  an  army 
with  Washington  at  its  head,  increased  the  navy  (§  296), 
and  ordered  the  capture  of  French  vessels.  Several 
naval  fights  followed,  in  which  a  number  of  French  pri 
vateers  were  taken.  The  most  important  battle  took 
place  near  the  island  of  St.  Kitt's,  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  the  Constellation,  Commodore  Truxton,  fought 
and  captured  the  French  frigate  LInsurgentc.  *  , 

320.  Peace  was  made  in  1799.  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
overturned  the  former  French  government,  and  put  him 
self  in  its  place.  He  then  offered  fair  terms  of  peace  to 
the  United  States,  and  they  were  accepted.  In  a  few 
years  he  made  himself  emperor  of  the  French,  and 
extended  his  empire  over  most  of  western  Europe.  He 
could  not  reach  the  British  Islands,  which  were  guarded 
by  the  strongest  navy  in  the  world ;  but  the  war  between 
him  and  Great  Britain  lasted  almost  constantly  until  his 
downfall  in  1815  (§  397). 

321.*  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. — The  war  excitement  led 
the  Federalists  in  Congress  to  do  some  extremely  unwise 
things.  The  comments  of  the  Republican  newspapers  on 
the  conduct  of  the  government  had  been  bitter  and  often 
scurrilous ;  and  as  many  of  the  editors  were  foreigners, 
the  Federalists  determined  to  punish  them.  Laws  were 
passed,  known  as  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  empower 
ing  the  President  to  arrest  and  imprison  aliens,  or  foreigners, 
whom  he  should  deem  dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the 
country,  or  even  to  expel  them  from  the  United  States, 
if  he  thought  proper;  and  also  laws  for  the  punishment 
of  persons  who,  by  word  or  writing,  spoke  evil  of  the 
government  or  any  branch  of  it.  Adams  did  not  use  the 
power  given  him,  but  there  wrere  a  number  of  prosecutions 

1  The  national  song,  "Hail  Columbia,"  was  published  and  became  popular 
during  this  war  excitement. 


i8oo]          KENTUCKY  AND   VIRGINIA  RESOLUTIONS  205 

for  sedition,  and  some  convictions.  The  acts  were  bitterly 
denounced  by  the  Republicans,  who  declared  them  to  be 
an  unwarranted  interference  with  free  speech,  and  insisted 
upon  the  right  of  every  man  to  criticise  the  government 
or  its  acts. 

322,  Kentucky  and    Virginia  Resolutions. — The    Alien 
and  Sedition  laws  aroused  great  alarm  as  to  the  lengths 
to   which   the   Federalists  might  go.      The   legislature  of 
Virginia  adopted  some  resolutions,  drawn  up  by  Madison, 
declaring  that  the  States  were  not  bound  to  obey  objec 
tionable  laws  of  Congress.      Similar   resolutions,    drafted 
by  Jefferson,  were  passed  in  Kentucky.      Other  States  to 
which  the  resolutions  were  sent  declined  to  approve  them ; 
but  the  majority  of  the  people  felt  that  the  action  of  the 
Federalists  was  high-handed  and  dangerous,  and  at  the 
following  election  the  Federalist  party  was  so  completely 
defeated    that   it   never   again   came   into    control    of  the 
government. 

323,  The  Presidential  Election  in  1 800  was  one  of  great 
excitement.      The  Federalists  voted  for  President  Adams 
and  C.  C.  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina;  the  Republicans, 
for  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr,   of  New  York.      Jefferson 
and  Burr  received  the  highest  number  of  electoral  votes 
(73),  but  each   had   the  same  number.      In  case  of  such 
a  tie  vote,    the  Constitution    directed   that  the   House  of 
Representatives  should  choose  one  of  the  two  for  President. 
After  some  delay,  and  a  good  deal  of  angry  discussion, 
the  House  chose  Jefferson   President  and  Burr  Vice-Presi- 
dent.      In  consequence  of  the  difficulties  of  this  election, 
the  Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  was  adopted 
in  1804  (§295).      It  changed  the  manner  of  the  election 
of  President  and  Vice-President,  and  made  it  as  it  still 
remains.      The  electors  were  now  to  vote  separately  for 
President  and  Vice-President,  so  that  there  could  be  no 


2o6 


FEDERALIST  CONTROL 


[1800 


1800]  LEADING  EVENTS  207 

such   tie  as   the  one   between  Jefferson   and    Burr,  where 
both  were  of  the  same  party. 

324.  The  Population  of  the  United  States  Was  shown  by 
the  census  of  1800  to  be  5,308,483,  a  considerable  growth 
since  1790  (§  313).      In  the  West,  Mississippi  and  Indiana 
were  formed  into  Territories,  showing  that  their  popula 
tion  was  increasing.      The  Territory  of  Ohio  was  growing 
rapidly,  and  was  soon  to  be  a  State.      In  the  older  parts 
of  the  country  there  was  little  change  except  the  steady 
growth  of  population.      In  1800,  the  national  capital,  and 
the  books  and   papers  of  the  government,  were  removed 
from  Philadelphia  (§  299)  to  the  new  city  of  Washington, 
then  a  straggling  half-built  village  in  the  woods,  with  a 
few  public  buildings   and   very  little  else.      The  Capitol 
and  the  other   fine  buildings  now -in  the  city  have  been 
built  as  the  country  has  grown  richer. 

325.  Washington   died   suddenly  in    1799.      His    death 
was  followed  by  mourning  throughout  the  United  States. 
Even   in   countries  beyond   the   sea,   the   event   was   an 
nounced  as  a  general  loss  to  mankind. 

326.  The   Leading   Events    in    the     administrations    of 
Washington  and  Adams  were  as  follows: 

1789-93  :  Washington's  First  Term §  294 

1789:  Inauguration  of  the  new  government.  294 

Ratification  by  North  Carolina 297 

1790:  Ratification  by  Rhode  Island 297 

Indian  war  in  Ohio 308 

1791 :  Harmar's  defeat  by  the  Indians 308 

St.  Clair's  defeat  by  the  Indians 30x8 

National  bank  established 300 

Vermont  admitted 302 

1792  :  Kentucky  admitted 302 

Parties  formed 303 

1793:  The  cotton-gin  invented 316 

Genet's  mission  from  France 306 

1793-7  :  Washington's  Second  Term 304 


208  FEDERALIST  CONTROL  [1800 

1794  :  Whiskey  Insurrection §  307 

Wayne's  defeat  of  the  Ohio  Indians.  .  308 

Jay's  treaty 309 

1 795  :  Treaty  with  Spain 315 

1 796  :  Tennessee  admitted 302 

Washington's  Farewell  Address 310 

1797-1801:  John  Adams's  Term 317 

1 798  :  War  with  France 319 

Alien  and  Sedition  laws 321 

1799:  Peace  with  France 320 

Death  of  Washington 325 

1800:  Removal  of  the  capital  to  Washington  324 

Defeat  of  the  Federalists 323 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Washington  as  a  party  leader. 

2.  History  of  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitution. 

3.  Hamilton's  theory  of  government. 

4.  Federalism  in  a  particular  State  (e.g. ,  Massachusetts). 

5.  Grounds  of  continued  ill  feeling   between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  to  1 800. 

6.  Settlement  of  the  Ohio  valley. 

7.  Early  antislavery  agitation. 

8.  Emancipation  of  slaves  in  the  Northern  States. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  the  texts  of 
Hamilton's  principal  financial  reports  (Nos.  6,  8,  9,  and  10), 
the  opinions  of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  on  the  constitutionality 
of  a  national  bank  (Xos.  10  and  n),  Washington's  proclama 
tion  of  neutrality  (No.  13)  and  message  on  the  Whiskey  Insur 
rection  (No.  15),  the  Jay  treaty  (No.  14),  Adams's  message  on 
the  X  Y  Z  negotiations  (No.  16),  the  Alien  and  Sedition  acts 
(Nos.  17-20),  and  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions 
(Nos.  21-23).  The  presidential  messages  are  in  Richardson's 
Messages  and  Papers  of  the  Presidents,  a  government  publica 
tion,  vol.  i.;  Washington's  Farewell  Address  is  in  ibid. ,  pp. 
213-224.  The  great  series  of  so-called  Congressional  Docu 
ments  begins  with  the  first  Congress,  in  1789;  for  their  classifica 
tion  and  contents,  see  the  bibliographical  note  to  MacDonald's 


iSoo]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  209 

Select  Documents.  The  most  important  of  these  documents, 
except  the  Journals  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
are  also  to  be  found  in  the  American  Stale  Papers.  For  the 
debates  in  Congress,  we  have,  for  this  period,  the  Annals  of 
Congress;  the  most  important  parts  are  also  in  Benton's 
Abridgment  of  Debates  in  Congress.  The  latter  work  extends  to 
1850.  The  acts  of  Congress  are  published  in  volumes,  from 
time  to  time,  under  the  title  of  Statutes  at  Large,  and  also  in 
pamphlet  form  at  the  close  of  each  session  of  Congress.  Treaties 
are  collected  in  a  volume  entitled  Treaties  and  Conventions, 
issued  as  a  government  document. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — Gibbs's  Administrations  of  Washington 
and  Adams  is  a  special  work  on  this  period.  To  the  lives  and 
writings  of  Washington,  John  Adams,  Hamilton,  Jefferson, 
Madison,  and  others,  previously  cited,  should  be  added  Henry 
Adams's  Gallatin,  Upham's  Timothy  Pickering,  Garland's  John 
Randolph,  Davis's  Burr,  and  Oilman's  Monroe.  J.  C.  Hamil 
ton's  History  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  is  devoted 
primarily  to  Alexander  Hamilton's  career.  On  the  details  of 
the  presidential  elections,  from  this  time  on,  see  Stanwood's 
History  of  the  Presidency.  Bolles's  Financial  History  of  the 
United  States,  Sumner's  American  Currency,  H.  C.  Adams's 
Public  Debts,  and  Elliot's  Funding  System  are  important  for 
financial  topics.  The  early  history  of  slavery  under  the  Con 
stitution  is  perhaps  best  treated  in  Wilson's  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  Slave  Power.  On  the  westward  expansion  see  Roosevelt's 
Winning  of  the  West.  The  numerous  articles  on  American 
history,  by  Alexander  Johnston,  in  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia  of 
Political  Science,  have  marked  value. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   LITERATURE. — H.    H.    Brackenridge's  Modern 
Chivalry;  W.  G.  Simms's  Beauchampe;  Cooper's  Miles  Walling- 
ford;  J.  E.  Cooke's  Leather  Stocking  and  Silk. 


CHAPTER    XII 
REPUBLICAN    SUPREMACY 

JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:    1801-1809 

TU™    »c  T^T  M   va     Pr^ci^nt        '  AARON  BURR,  N.  Y.,  Vice-Presidcnt,  1801-1805. 

,ON,  Va.,  Pi        ent.      -  CLINTONj  N<  Y.,  Vice-President,  1805-1809. 


327.  The   Nation   Abroad.  —  The    great    characteristic 
which   marks  the  period  of  Republican  supremacy  is  the 
recognition  of  the  new  nation  by  other  nations,  particularly 
in  Europe.     It  is  true  that  governments  in  that  part  of  the 
world    had    made   treaties  with    the    United    States,   thus 
acknowledging  the  existence  of  the  new  nation  ;   but  they 
had  as  yet  no  great  respect  for  it.      It  was  poor  ;   it  had 
no  large  armies  ;   and  it  was  so  far  away  from  them  that 
they  had   little  fear  that  it  would  resent  injuries.      They 
were  very  prone,  then,  particularly  Great  Britain,  to  act 
unjustly  toward  American  merchant-vessels  and  seamen. 
After  years  of  such  injuries,    the  American  Government 
was   forced   into  war,   in  which  it   showed    at   last   that, 
though  it  had  no  large  armies,  it  was  a  great  naval  power; 
that  its  men  and  war-vessels  could  do  what  those  of  no 
other  nation   could  do,    namely,    fight  British  vessels  on 
equal  terms  with  success. 

328.  The   Nation   at   Home.  —  Jefferson     and    his    party 
believed  in  State  sovereignty  (§§  303,  304).     If  two  States 
that  are  sovereign  to  the  fullest  extent,  such  as  France 
and    Spain,    join   for   any  purpose,    either   can    withdraw 
whenever  it  thinks  best.      If  the  States  of  the  Union  were 

210 


iSoiJ  JEFFERSON  211 

sovereign  to  a  like  extent,  any  one  of  them  could  with 
draw,  or  secede,  whenever  it  thought  best.  The  struggles 
of  these  years,  and  particularly  the  war  with  Great 
Britain,  taught  the  Republican  party  that  it  must  support 
the  nation,  whether  the  States  liked  it  or  not.  So  well 
was  the  lesson  learned  that,  but  for  slavery,  there  would 
never  again  have  been  any  danger  of  secession ;  and  most 
men  thought  that  there  was  no  further  danger  from  slavery 
when  the  importation  of  slaves  was  forbidden,  in  1808. 

329.*  The  President. — Jefferson  had  been  long  in  public 
life,  and  had  many  claims  to  popular  confidence  and 
esteem.  He  was  born  in  1743,  became  a  lawyer,  and 
served  successively  as  member  of  the  Continental  Con 
gress,  governor  of  his  State,  and  minister  to  France, 
returning  from  abroad  to  become  Secretary  of  State  under 
Washington.  As  Secretary,  he  soon  quarrelled  with 
Hamilton,  and  at  the  beginning  of  1794  retired  from  the 
Cabinet.  In  the  mean  time,  he  had  come  forward  as  the 
leader  of  the  Democratic,  or  Republican,  party,  which 
opposed  the  strong  centralized  government  of  the  Federal 
ists,  and  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1796,  and  Presi 
dent  in  1800.  He  was  a  poor  public  speaker,  but  a  fluent 
and  effective  writer,  and  exercised  an  extraordinary  con 
trol  over  his  party. 

330.  Jefferson's  Inauguration  marks  a  great  change  in 
the  people  and  in  their  feelings.  Before  the  Revolution^ 
and  for  some  time  after  it,  the  people  had  been  rather 
slow  in  their  ways  of  thinking,  speaking,  and  acting. 
Except  in  New  England,  they  were  accustomed  to  leave 
political  matters  to  a  few  men,  to  the  king,  to  his 
governors,  or  to  rich  or  influential  men  in  their  own 
colonies.  Generally,  those  who  owned  no  property  were 
not  allowed  to  vote,  and  those  who  owned  property 
and  voted  were  disposed  to  keep  the  rest  in  order  by 


212  REPUBLICAN  SUPREMACY  [1801 

strong  government.  But  the  change  to  a  republic  had 
changed  the  feelings  of  the  people.  They  had  become 
more  like  the  Americans  of  the  present  time,  active, 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON. 

pushing,    and    impatient    of  too    much    dignity   in    their 
neighbors. 

331.  The  Republicans. — The  real  reason  why  Jefferson 
and  his  party  had  come  into  power  was  that  they  repre 
sented  the  new  men  and  the  new  feeling.  They  even  tried 


i8oi]  DOMESTIC  AFFAIRS  213 

to  show  the  change  by  their  manners  and  dress.  They 
ceased  to  wear  the  wigs  or  cues  of  former  times ;  wore 
their  own  hair,  cut  short;  laughed  at  the  formal  manners, 
dignity,  and  dress  of  the  Federalists;  and  insisted  that 
every  man  should  have  a  vote,  property  or  no  property. 
From  this  time,  their  ideas  largely  controlled  the  country, 
outside  of  New  England ;  and  in  Congress  they  made  the 
laws  to  suit  themselves.  But  they  made  very  little  change 
in  the  forms  of  government  which  the  Federalists  had  left 
them  ;  and  our  government  is  still  administered  very  much 
after  the  plans  introduced  by  the  Federal. party. 

332.  The  Federalists. — To  the  Federalists,  the  changes 
introduced  by  the  Republicans  seemed  dangerous  in  the 
extreme.      Some  of  the   leaders  showed  their  disapproval 
by  retiring  from  political  life  altogether,  while  others  were 
forced   into   retirement   by  defeat  at  elections.      In  New 
York,  where  the  Vice-President,  Aaron  Burr,  had  much 
political   influence,  the   feeling   was   very  bitter;   and   the 
greatest  of  Federalists,  Hamilton,  was  shot  and  killed  by 
Burr  in  a  duel.     Between  the  Federalists  and  the  Repub 
licans  there  were   never  any  important  points  of  contact; 
and  from   this  time   the  Federalists  ceased   to  have,  as   a 
party,  much  weight  in  national  affairs. 

(i)   Domestic  Affairs. 

333.  Domestic  Affairs  under  Jefferson  were  at  first  marked 
by  a  wonderful  prosperity.     American  commerce  increased 
enormously ;   for  as  nearly  all  Europe  was  now  at  war,  it 
was  not  safe  to  send  goods  in   European  vessels,  which 
were  liable  to  capture  by  their  enemies,    and   American 
vessels  obtained  far  more  than  their   natural  share  of  the 
trade    of   the    world.      Money    came    in    rapidly    to    the 
government  of  the  United  States,  and  its  debt  was  soon 


214  REPUBLICAN  SUPREMACY  [l8°3 

nearly  paid.     Above  all,  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
was  more  than  doubled  by  the  purchase  of  Louisiana. 

334.  Louisiana  Purchase. — The  great  territory  between 
the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains   (§  155), 
called  Louisiana,  no  longer  belonged  to  Spain.     Napoleon 
had  bought  it  in  1800,  and  intended  to  make  it  a  strong 
French  colony.      But  in    1803,  perhaps  having  reason  to 
believe  that  his  enemy  Great  Britain  intended  to  attack  it, 
he  sold  it  to  the  United   States  for  $15,000,000.      Before 

1803,  the  United   States  covered   827,844  square  miles; 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana  more  than  doubled  this,  adding 
over    1,100,100   square   miles    of  new    territory    (§7/3). 
Steamboats  and  railroads,  by  carrying  immigration  into 
the    new    territory,    have    since    made    it   very    valuable. 
There  have  been  formed  from  it  the  States  of  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  North 
and  South   Dakota,  Montana,  and   Indian  Territory,  and 
a  great  part  of  the   States   of  Minnesota,  Colorado,  and 
Wyoming.1 

335.  The  Oregon  Country,  covering  the  present  States  of 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho,  was  then  unknown.     In 

1804,  President  Jefferson  sent  a    land    expedition  under 
Lewis    and   Clarke,    which  explored   the    upper   Missouri 
River,  and  the  country  around  the  Columbia  River  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.      This  gave  the  United  States  a  claim  to 
this  territory  also,  though  its  claim  was  not  admitted  for 
nearly  forty  years  (§  523). 

336.*  Ohio,  the  first  State  formed  from  the  Northwest 
Territory  under  the  Ordinance  of  1787  (§  274),  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  in  1802.  Its  constitution  was 
noticeable  for  the  liberality  of  its  provisions,  and  the 

1  It  was  thought  at  the  time  that  Louisiana  included  Texas  also,  but  in 
1819  the  United  States  gave  up  this  claim  to  Spain  in  return  for  Florida 
§4H). 


#» 
S    S    I    0    N 

'         8        BlJ'  J  Lttt.St.EUM 


MAP  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 

SHOWING 


SHOWING 

ACQUISITION  OF  TERRITORY 


i8o7] 


THE  STEAMBOAT 


215 


power  given  to  the  people  as  a  whole,  rather  than  to  par 
ticular  classes. 

337.  The  Steamboat. — The  year  1807  is  marked  by  one 
of  the  most  important  events  in  American  history — Robert 
Fulton's  invention  of  the 
steamboat.  The  steam- 
engine  of  Watt  had  been 
known  and  used  for  forty 
years,  and  many  unsuccess 
ful  attempts  had  been  made 
to  use  it  in  turning  the  pad 
dle-wheels  of  vessels.  Ful 
ton  succeeded  ;  and  his  first 
clumsy  vessel,  the  Clermont, 
made  the  trip  from  New 
York  to  Albany,  150  miles, 
in  32  hours.  The  appear 
ance  of  his  boat  was  not 
materially  different  from 
that  of  a  small  side-wheel 
steamer  of  the  present  day. 
This  was  the  best  thing 

that  had  yet  happened  for  the  West.  The  first  western 
steamboat  was  built  at  Pittsburgh  in  1811,  and  within  a 
few  years  every  western  river  had  its  steamboats.  Noth 
ing  had  yet  helped  emigration  so  much,  or  given  the 
settlers  so  many  new  ways  of  making  money, 
rivers  of  the  United  States  could  now  be 
the  current,  as  well  as  with  it,  and  steamboats  carried 
passengers  and  freight  where  rowboats  had  not  been  able 
to  carry  them.1 

1  The  first  sea-going  steam-vessel,  the  Savannah,  crossed  the  Atlantic  in 
1819,  but  ocean  navigation  by  steam  was  not  permanently  established  until 
nearly  twenty  years  afterwards  (§  447). 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


The  great 
used  against 


216  REPUBLICAN  SUPREMACY  [1806 

338.  The  Wealth  of  the  Country  was  steadily  growing, 
and  the  people  .were  busily  seeking  new  means  of  industry. 
The  system  of  patents,  which  gave  an  inventor  the  exclu 
sive  right  to  his  invention  all  over  the  United  States,  was 
rapidly  increasing  the  number  of  useful  American  inven 
tions.      Attempts  were  made  to  produce  a  mowing  and 
reaping  machine,  but  they  were  not  yet  successful  (§  448). 
In  1806,  the  first  boat-load  of  anthracite  coal  was  shipped 
to  Philadelphia,  but  no  one  knew  how  to  use  it.1 

339.  The  Presidential  Election  in   1804  resulted  in  the 
success    of  the    Republicans.      Jefferson    was    re-elected 
President,  and  George  Clinton  was  elected  Vice-President. 
Burr,  who  had  been  elected  Vice-President  in  1800,  had 
fallen  out  of  favor  with  his  party  and  was  not  re-elected.2 

340.  Burr,  who  had  retired  from  public  life  in  1805,  did 
not  long  remain  quiet.      In  1806  he  collected  armed  men 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  along  the  Ohio  River, 
and  sailed  with  them  in  boats  down  the  Mississippi.      It 
was    suspected    that    he    intended   to   set   up   a    separate 
government  of  his   own   in  the   Mississippi  valley,   or  to 
attack  the  Spanish  province  of  Mexico.      He  was  stopped 
by  the  United  States  authorities  at  Natchez,  and  sent  back 
to    Richmond   to   be  tried  for  treason.      As  he    had    not 
actually  borne   arms   against   the  United  States,   he  was 
acquitted,  although  Jefferson  made  every  effort  to  secure 
his  conviction.      Burr  disappeared  from  public  view. 

1  At  first,  Americans  knew  only  open  stoves,   burning  wood  or  soft  coal. 
The  anthracite,  or  "  stone-coal,"  fields  of  Pennsylvania  were  discovered  in 
1791,  but  the  coal  was  not  generally  used  until  about  1830  (§  446). 

2  The  Federalist  candidates  were  C.  C.  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  and 
Rufus  King,  of  New  York.     They  received  only  14  electoral  votes  out  of  176 
(§  295)- 


i8o5] 


FOREIGN  AFFAIRS 


217 


(2)   Foreign  Affairs. 

341.  The  Barbary  States,  Morocco,  Algiers,  Tunis,  and 
Tripoli,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa,  were 
Mohammedan  countries.  They  considered  Christian 
nations  to  be  heathens,  and,  unless  they  were  paid  to 
remain  at  peace,  captured  Christian  vessels  and  made 
slaves  of  the  sailors.  The  greatest  nations  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  the  United  States,  had  always  submitted  to  this 
demand,  and  had  paid  these  pirates  liberally  for  peace. 


BAKBARY  STATES. 

342.  The  Tripolitan  War  began  in  1801.  Tripoli  de 
manded  more  money  from  the  United  States,  and,  when 
it  was  refused,  began  to  capture  American  vessels.  The 
little  American  navy  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean. 
One  frigate,  the  Philadelphia,  rajn__a.grQund  in  the  harbor 
of  Tripoli,  in  1803,  and  was  captured;  but  Lieutenant 
Decatur,  with  twenty  picked  sailors,  sailed  into  the  harbor 
and  burned  her.  A  land  expedition  attacked  Tripoli 
from  the  eastward,  and  the  navy  bombarded  the  town 
from  the  harbor;  and  in  1805,  Tripoli  yielded  and  made 
peace.  Other  nations  followed  the  American  example, 
and  in  a  few  years  the  Barbary  pirates  were  forced  to 
remain  at  peace  without  being  paid  for  it  (§  404). 


2i 8  REPUBLICAN  SUPREMACY  [1807 

343.*  Orders  and  Decrees. — The  wars  in  Europe  between 
Great  Britain  and  France  had  by  this  time  become  of 
world-wide  importance.  Great  Britain  had  the  most 
powerful  navy  in  the  world,  and  France  the  strongest 
army;  and  each  country  sought  to  compel  other  countries 
to  side  with  it.  It  was  difficult  for  the  United  States  to 
escape  the  aggressions  of  one  or  other  of  the  combatants ; 
and  as  events  turned  out,  it  became  a  prey  of  both. 
Jay's  treaty  (§  309)  expired  in  1806,  and  the  United 
States  was  left  without  a  commercial  treaty  with  Great 
Britain.  In  the  same  year,  Great  Britain,  by  an  Order 
in  Council,  declared  a  blockade  of  all  those  parts  of 
Europe  which  had  sided  with  France,  and  forbade  vessels 
to  enter  their  harbors.  Napoleon  thereupon  issued  the 
Berlin  Decree,  forbidding  neutral  vessels  to  enter  British 
harbors.  In  1807,  Great  Britain  replied  by  forbidding 
neutral  vessels  to  enter  any  ports  in  Europe  except  those 
of  Great  Britain  and  of  Sweden,  the  latter  country  being 
friendly  to  Great  Britain.  Napoleon  then  issued  the 
Milan  Decree,  ordering  the  capture  and  sale  of  any  neutral 
vessel  which  should  enter  a  British  harbor.  As  the 
United  States,  being  neutral,  had  been  absorbing  more  and 
more  of  the  carrying  trade  with  Europe,  these  orders  and 
decrees,  if  enforced,  meant  the  annihilation  of  its  foreign 
commerce.  Great  Britain  also  claimed  the  right  of  search 
and  impressment;  that  is,  the  right  to  stop  a  vessel 
belonging  to  another  nation,  examine  its  cargo,  and  take 
off  sailors  who  seemed  to  the  British  officers  to  have  been 
born  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland.  Nothing  was  more 
exasperating  to  the  United  States  than  the  assertion  of 
such  a  claim,  or  more  humiliating  than  to  be  compelled 
to  submit  to  the  exercise  of  it. 

344.   American   Policy. — American    commerce    suffered 
severely  from  these  measures.      Great  numbers  of  vessels 


I  So  7]    THE  EMBARGO  AND  NON-INTERCOURSE  ACTS        219 

were  seized  and  sold  by  Great  Britain  and  France,  and 
many  Americans  were  forced  to  serve  on  British  war- 
vessels.  If  the  American  Government  had  been  as  strong 
as  it  now  is,  it  would  have  compelled  the  two  contending 
nations  to  respect  the  rights  of  its  citizens.  But  the1, 
country,  though  growing  rapidly,  was  still  poor  and  weak.  , 
The  Republicans,  whose  strength  was  among  the  farmers 
and  the  people  of  the  smaller  towns,  were  anxious  to  pay 
off  the  national  debt,  and  begrudged  the  expense  of  a 
navy.  Few  persons  believed  that,  even  if  the  country 
had  a  navy,  it  would  be  able  to  withstand  Great  Britain, 
whose  navy  was  popularly  regarded  as  invincible.  Jeffer 
son,  whose  views  on  all  these  points  were  the  views  of  his 
party,  was  determined  to  have  peace ;  and  even  when  a 
British  frigate,  the  Leopard,  stopped  the  United  States 
frigate  Cliesapcakc,  which  was  in  no  condition  for  fighting, 
and  compelled  her  to  give  up  four  of  her  sailors,  the 
President  successfully  resisted  the  country's  desire  to 
declare  war.  When  all  the  injuries  together  had  become; 
unbearable,  the  Republican  party  decided  to  stop  American' 
commerce  for  a  time,  in  hope  of  bringing  Great  Britain  to 
reason  by  injuring  her  trade  rather  than  by  open  war. 

345.  The  Embargo  and  Non-Intercourse  Acts. — To  follow 
out  this  plan,  Congress  in  1807  passed  the  Embargo. 
Act,  which  forbade  the  departure  of  any  vessel  from  the 
United  States  for  a  foreign  port.  But  it  turned  out  to  be 
a  complete  failure.  Great  Britain  liked  it  because  it  left 
almost  all  trade  to  British  vessels.  In  New  England, 
whose  people  were  then  largely  supported  by  commerce, 
all  business  was  broken  up,  the  people  became  poorer  and 
desperate,  and  a  few  of  them  began  to  talk  of  separating 
from  the  Union.  In  other  parts  of  the  Union,  also,  it  was 
found  that  crops  were  of  little  value  when  they  could  no 
longer  be  carried  to  foreign  countries  and  sold.  Nothing 


220  REPUBLICAN   SUPREMACY  [1808 

had  been  gained  by  violent  interference  with  the  natural 
order  of  things.  So  great  and  general  was  the  dissatisfac 
tion  with  the  Embargo  that,  in  1809,  Congress  passed 
instead  of  it  the  Non-Intercourse  Act.  This  still  forbade 
trade  with  Great  Britain  or  France  while  their  offensive 
measures  were  continued,  but  allowed  trade  with  other 
countries. 

346.*  The  Presidential  Election.— This  state  of  things 
was  an  unhappy  ending  for  Jefferson's  administrations. 
The  people  were  hopeless  of  fair  treatment  from  Great 
Britain  or  France,  and  were  almost  ready  for  war  against 
the  principal  offender,  Great  Britain.  The  election  of 
1808,  however,  notwithstanding  the  disastrous  effects  of 
the  Embargo  and  Non-Intercourse  laws,  resulted  in  Repub 
lican  success.  James  Madison,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen 
President,  and  George  Clinton  was  re-elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent.  Madison  was  as  anxious  for  peace  as  Jefferson  was. 
But  the  views  of  the  Republicans  were  changing.  They 
had  wished  the  States  to  be  strong,  and  as  independent  as 
possible ;  but  they  were  beginning  to  see  that,  in  dealing 
with  other  nations,  a  strong  national  government  was  a 
necessity.  Moreover,  the  membership  of  Congress,  par 
ticularly  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  \vas  showing 
an  increasing  percentage  of  young  men ;  and  it  was 
unlikely  that  the  aggressions  of  either  Great  Britain  or 
France,  if  they  should  continue,  would  long  be  borne 
without  forcible  resistance. 

347.  The  Leading  Events  of  Jefferson's  administrations 
were  as  follows: 

1801-05  :  Jefferson's  First  Term. §  329 

1801 :  War  with  Tripoli 342 

1802  :  Admission  of  Ohio 336 

1803  :  Burning  of  the  Philadelphia 342 

Purchase  of  Louisiana 334 


1809]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  221 

1804  :  Lewis  and  Clarke's  expedition 335 

1 805  :  Peace  with  Tripoli 342 

1805-09:  Jefferson's  Second  Term 339 

1806  :  European  blockade  by  Great  Britain..  343 

Berlin  Decree  by  Napoleon 343 

1807:  Orders  in  Council  by  Great  Britain.  .  343 

Milan  Decree  by  Napoleon 343 

Affair  of  the  Leopard  and  Chesapeake..  344 

The  Embargo 345 

Burr's  expedition 340 

Fulton's  invention  of  the  steamboat.  .  337 

1809:  The  Non-Intercourse  Act 345 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Jefferson  as  a  party  leader. 

2.  The  life  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall. 

3.  Burr's  western  schemes. 

4.  Geography  of  the  Louisiana  purchase. 

5.  Early  steamboat  routes. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — The  Louisiana  treaty,  Jefferson's  message  on  the 
Burr  conspiracy,  and  the  Embargo  Act  are  in  MacDonald's 
Select  Documents,  Nos.  24,  25,  and  27.  Extracts  from  the 
Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  and  the  English  Orders  in  Council 
are  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  Translations  and  Reprints, 
vol.  ii.,  No.  2. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  best  general  account  of  this 
period  is  Henry  Adams's  History  of  the  United  States,  covering 
the  period  1800-1817.  The  biographies  mentioned  in  connec 
tion  with  Chapter  XL  should  of  course  be  consulted  also. 
Barbe-Marbois's  History  of  Louisiana,  Parts  n.  and  in  ,  is  im 
portant  for  the  cession  of  1803.  On  Burr's  conspiracy  see, 
besides  Adams's  United  States,  in.,  Parton's  Life  and  Times  of 
Burr,  vul.  n  ,  chaps.  21-26,  and  Randall's/^rjw/,  vol.  in., 
chap.  5.  King's  Ohio  rs  a  good  brief  history  of  the  State. 
Sullivan's  Familiar  Letters  is  an  interesting  book  of  reminis 
cence. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — M.  E.  Seawall's  Decatur  and 
Somers;  E.  L.  Bynner's  Zachary  Phips;  J.  K.  Paulding's  John 
Bull  and  Brother  Jonathan;  E.  E.  Hale's  Man  without  a  Country* 


CHAPTER    XIII 


THE    SECOND   WAR   WITH    GREAT    BRITAIN 


MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:    1809-1817 


•j     * 
JAMES  MADISON,  \a.,  President, 


GEO.  CLINTON,  N.  Y.,  Vice-President,  1809-1813. 
ELBRIDGE  GERRY,  Mass.,  Vice-President,  1813-1817. 


348,  The  New  President.  —  James  Madison,  of  Virginia, 
the  new  President  (§  346),  was  one  of  the  ablest  leaders 

of  the  Republican  party. 
He  had  been  a  member 
of  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation,  of  the 
Convention  of  1787,  the 
leader  of  the  Republi 
cans  in  Congress  after 
1789,  and  Secretary  of 
State  under  Jefferson. 
He  was  a  close  friend 
of  Jefferson,  but  more 
anxious  for  a  strong  na 
tional  government  than 
Jefferson  had  been. 

349.  The  English  Diffi 
culties.  —  The  troubles 
with  Great  Britain  came 
to  a  head  in  Madison's 
first  term.  The  Non- 

JAMES  MADISON.  T  A 

Intercourse  Act  came  to 

an  end  (1810)  without  having  produced  any  effect.      Con- 

222 


1812]  DECLARATION   OF  IV A R  223 

gress  then  declared  that,  if  either  Great  Britain  or  France 
should  revoke  the  offensive  decrees,  the  Non-Intercourse 
Act  would  be  revived  against  the  other  nation.  Napoleon 
at  once  announced  that  he  had  revoked  his  decrees.  This 
was  a  falsehood,  for  he  enforced  his  decrees  as  severely 
as  ever;  but  the  falsehood  served  Napoleon's  purpose  by 
arraying  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  against  one 
another.  The  United  States  revived  the  Non-Intercourse 
Act  against  Great  Britain,  and  Great  Britain  became  more 
overbearing  than  ever.  Her  war-vessels  watched  the 
whole  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  captured 
American  merchantmen,  often  without  giving  any  reason.1 

350,  Tecumseh. — British    officers  were   believed   to    be 
stirring  up  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest  to  war.      The 
Indians,  under  a  chief  named  Tecumseh,  broke  into  hos 
tilities,  and  were  defeated  by  Governor  W.  H.  Harrison 
in   a   battle   at    Tippecanoe,    near    the   present    town   of 
Lafayette.      Tecumseh   and   his   warriors  soon   afterward 
entered  the  British  army. 

351.  War   with   Great  Britain. — Toward    the   end    of 
Madison's  first  term  the  patience  of  the  people  became 
exhausted.      When  new  Congressmen  were  to  be  chosen, 
the  "submission  men,"  who  wished  to  avoid  war,  were 
defeated,  and  "war  men  "  were  elected.      Madison  him 
self,  who  still  wished  for  peace,  was  forced  to  yield  to  the 
general  feeling,    and  June    18,    1812,    Congress   declared 
war.      The    presidential    election    following   was    without 
incident,  and  resulted  in  the  re-election  of  Madison,  with 
Elbridge    Gerry,    of    Massachusetts,    as    Vice-President. 
The  vote    of  Pennsylvania    turned   the  scale  in  favor   of 
Madison.      The   Republicans  were  now  so  completely  in 

1  In  1811,  the  United  States  frigate  President  hailed  the  British  vessel 
Little  Belt  off  Cape  Charles,  and  was  answered  by  a  cannon-shot.  In  the 
fight  that  followed,  the  British  vessel  was  badly  beaten. 


224  THE  SECOND    W 'AR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1812 

control  of  the  country  that  the   Federalist  opposition  was 
powerless.1 

352.  The   Preparations   for   War  against  Great    Britain 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  very  valuable.      The  British 
navy  numbered  about    1,000  vessels,    many  of  them  the 
most  powerful  warships  afloat.     The  American  navy  num 
bered    12,  none  of  them  of  large  size,  with  a  number  of 
cheap,    small,    and     useless     craft    called     "gunboats." 
Some  efforts  had  been  made    to    increase  the  American 
army;  but  the   men  were  undisciplined,  and  the  officers 
were  generally  politicians,  who  knew  nothing  about  war. 
The  consequence  was  that  the  Americans  were  beaten  in 
almost  every  land-battle,  until  the  fighting  generals  got 
rid    of   the    political    officers     and    disciplined    the     men 
properly    (§§  364,     391).      In    the    navy    there    were    no 
political  officers,  and  few  failures ;   and   most  of  the  glory 
of  the  war  was  gained,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  people 
of  both  countries,  by  brilliant  and  successful  sea-fights. 

353.  The  Population  of  the  United   States  in    1810  was 
7,239,881  ;   that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  nearly 
19,000,000.       The    larger    population    of   Great    Britain 
was  gathered  into  a  space  about  as  large  as  New  York, 
Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey  together,  so  that 
it  could  act  promptly  and  effectively;   while  that  of  the 
United  States  was  scattered  over  a  vast  territory,  extend 
ing  from  the  Atlantic   Ocean   to   the  Rocky  Mountains, 
nearly  six  times  as  long  and  ten  times   as  wide  as  Great 
Britain.     In  what  is  now  the  State  of  Indiana  there  were  but 
25,000  persons,  in  Illinois  12,000,  and  in  Michigan  5,000. 

354.  The   Principal  Theatre  of  War,  on  the  boundary 
between  Canada  and  the  United  States,  was  then  a  wilder- 

1  Madison  had  128  electoral  votes,  and  De  Witt  Clinton,  of  New  York,  89. 
Clinton  was  a  Republican,  but  received  the  support  of  the  Federalists.  The 
Federalist  candidate  for  Vice-President  was  Jared  Ingersoll,  of  Pennsylvania. 


1812]  FAILURES  IN    THE  NORTH  225 

ness.  There  was  no  considerable  town  in  the  whole 
western  half  of  the  State  of  New  York,  or  on  the  lake 
shore ;  and  the  maps  of  the  time  do  not  show  such  places 
as  Buffalo,  Rochester,  or  Syracuse,  even  as  villages. 
There  were  hardly  any  passable  roads  there  or  north  and 
west  of  the  Ohio  River;  and  food  for  the  troops  was 
carried  to  them  with  great  difficulty  and  at  a  cost  some 
times  of  five  or  six  times  its  original  value.  The  present 
States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  were  still  more  destitute 
of  inhabitants ;  and  the  traveller  or  army  passing  from  the 
settled  country  around  Nashville  to  New  Orleans  or 
Mobile  went  nearly  all  the  way  through  a  hostile  Indian 
country. 

355,  The  Dislike  to  the  War  was  very  general  in   New 
England,  where  the  people  believed  that  it  was  needless 
and   wrong.      Money  was   scarce   in   the   United    States, 
and,  scarce  as  it  was,  most  of  it  was  in  New  England. 
The  government  attempted  to  carry  on  the  war  by  raising 
loans.      But  those  who  supported  the  war  had  very  little 
money,  and  those  who  had  money  to  spare  refused  to  lend 
it  to   support  the   war.      The  consequence   was   that  the 
government  was  almost  constantly  in  want  of  money,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  war  could  hardly  get  enough  money 
to  arm,  clothe,  and  feed  its  soldiers,  or  build  war-vessels. 

(3)   Failures  in   tJic  North  :   1812-14. 

356.  Hull's  Surrender  began  the  list  of  failures  in  the 
North.      The  most  important  frontier  town  of  the  north 
west   was   Detroit,    in    which   William  Hull,    governor   of 
Michigan     Territory,     resided.       Immediately     after     the 
declaration  of  war  he  was  ordered  to  cross  the  river  and 
invade  Canada.      He  did  so,  but  retreated  to   Detroit  as 
the  British  troops  under  General  Brock  advanced  toward 


226  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1812 

him.  Brock  followed,  besieged  Detroit,  and  threatened 
to  give  his  Indians  liberty  to  kill  unless  the  place  was 
given  up.  After  a  siege  of  less  than  a  week,  Hull  sur 
rendered  Detroit,  and  with  it  the  whole  country  northwest 
of  Ohio.1 

357.  Invasion  of  Canada. — In  the  autumn  of  1812,   an 
attempt  was  made  to  invade  Canada  from  Lewiston,  New 
York,  by  crossing  the  Niagara  River.      While  the  braver 
part  of  the  men   crossed  and  assaulted  the   British,  who 
were  posted  on  Queenstown   Heights,  the  rest  could  not 
be    persuaded    to    leave  Lewiston.      The  men  who    had 
crossed,     1,000    in     number,    were    killed    or    captured. 
Another   attempt  was  talked   of,  but  the   men   were   un 
trained  and  disobedient;   the  officers  quarrelled  with  one 
another;    and    this   attempt   was   given    up.      The    com- 
mander-in-chief,    General    Dearborn,   then   collected    the 
army  at  Plattsburgh,  to  attack  Montreal.      The  principal 
event   of  this   campaign  was   a   sharp   fight  between   two 
parts   of  the   army,    which   mistook   one   another  for   the 
enemy;   otherwise  nothing  was  done. 

358.  In   the   West,   Harrison    (§  350)   was    made   com- 
mander-in-chief,  and  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  to 
drive  the   British   out  of  Detroit.      His  troops  were  Ken 
tucky  and  Ohio  volunteers,  and  they  succeeded  excellently 
in  scattered  fighting  against  the  Indian  villages ;  but  they 
had   not  yet  learned  military  obedience,    and  when   they 
were  formed  into  an  army  failed  to  accomplish  anything 
during  the  year  1812. 

359.  The  River  Raisin — As  soon  as  the  swamps  and 
lakes    of  the    Northwest  were  frozen  over,    in    the   early 
winter  of  1813,  Harrison  renewed  his  efforts  to  drive  the 
British  out  of  Delroit.     His  advanced  force,  under  General 

1  Hull  was  court-martialled  and  sentenced  to  be  shot  for  cowardice,  hut 
was  pardoned  on  account  of  his  services  in  the  Revolutionary  war. 


FORTS  MEIGS  AND  STEPHEN  SON 


227 


Winchester,     reached     the     Raisin     River,     in     southern 
Michigan,  and  was  there  attacked  by  the  British  General 


SCALE  OF   MILES 


Proctor.  Winchester  surrendered  as  Hull  had  done ;  and 
Proctor  cruelly  allowed  his  Indians  to  butcher  the  wounded 
prisoners.1 

360.  Forts  Meigs  and  Stephenson — Harrison  was  now 
forced  back,  and  took  refuge  in  Fort  Meigs,  near  the 
present  town  of  Defiance.  Here  he  was  besieged  by 
Proctor,  in  the  spring  of  1813.  Twelve  hundred  Ken- 
tuckians  relieved  Harrison,  though  many  of  them  were 
killed  or  captured  in  the  effort;  and  Proctor  retreated. 
Later  in  the  year  he  again  attacked  Fort  Meigs  without 
success,  and  then  turned  to  Fort  Stephenson,  near  the 
present  town  of  Sandusky.  The  fort  was  defended  by  a 

1  Most  of  the  men  massacred  at  the  Raisin  were  Kentuckians,  and  from 
that  time  the  Kentucky  troops  went  into  battle  calling  to  one  another,  '•  Re 
member  the  river  Raisin." 


228  THE  SECOND   WAR    U/ITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1813 

young  officer  named  Croghan.  He  had  but  one  cannon 
and  a  few  men ;  but  he  used  both  so  vigorously  that 
Proctor  was  beaten  off. 

361.  Battle  of  the  Thames. — In  September,  1813,  Perry's 
capture  of  the  British   squadron  (§  381)  gave  the  Ameri 
cans  command   of  Lake  Erie.      Harrison   at  once  put  his 
forces  on   Perry's  vessels,  and  crossed  directly  from  Ohio 
into  Canada.      He  overtook  the  retreating  British  army, 
under  Proctor,  at  the  Thames  River,  and  forced  them  into 
battle.      After  a  sharp  conflict,  the  British  were  completely 
defeated,    and   most  of  them   were  captured.      The  great 
Indian  leader,  Tecumseh,  was  killed.      This  battle  ended 
the  war  in  the  northwest.      Detroit  and   Michigan  again 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans,   and  detachments 
were  sent  out  which  recaptured  and  held  Peoria  and  other 
outlying  forts. 

362.  In  New  York,  early  in  1813,  Dearborn  crossed  the 
lake    from    Sackett's    Harbor    to    Toronto     (then    called 
York),  captured  it,  and  burned  the  British  supplies.      He 
then  returned  to  the  American   side,  near  Lewiston,  and 
there    crossed    again    into    Canada.      But   his    operations 
were    badly    managed ;    his    troops    were    beaten    in    two 
small    battles ;   and    he    returned    to    New  York  and  re 
signed.1 

363.  Chrysler's  Farm. — Late  in  1813,  General  Wilkin 
son,   Dearborn's  successor,  took  the  American  forces  at 
Plattsburgh  and   Sackett's   Harbor,  and   moved  down  the 
St.    Lawrence   River  toward  Montreal.      One   battle  was 
fought,   at  Chrysler's   Farm,  on  the   Canada  side,  nearly 
opposite    Ogdensburgh ;    but   neither  side   could    claim    a 
victory.      The  expedition  was  then   given  up.      The  men 

1  During  this  invasion  of  Canada,  the  British  attacked  Sackett's  Harbor, 
but  were  beaten  off  by  General  Jacob  Brown,  one  of  the  new  generals  who 
were  to  achieve  success  the  next  vear. 


1812]  NAl/AL   SUCCESSES  229 

were  not  to  blame  for  these  failures  :   the  officers  were  as 
inefficient  as  ever,  and  quarrelled  continually.1 

364.  Reorganization.—  At  the  close  of  the  year  1813, 
the  American  Government  had  learned  something  from 
the  disasters  on  the  northern  frontier.  As  fast  as  possible, 
the  political  officers  were  weeded  out,  and  the  officers 
who  had  shown  fighting  qualities  were  promoted  to  their 
places.  The  chief  command  was  given  to  General  Jacob 
Brown,  an  officer  who,  without  military  education,  had 
shown  remarkable  military  abilities.  Next  to  him  were 
Scott,  a  young  man  of  27  (§  534),  and  Ripley.  The 
winter  of  1813-14  was  passed  in  training  the  men;  but, 
even  to  do  this  much,  it  was  necessary  that  Scott  should 
translate  a  text-book  of  tactics  from  the  French,  for  the 
American  army  had  not  yet  had  even  a  system  of  drill. 
The  effects  of  the  reorganization  were  evident  in  the  fol 
lowing  year.  The  men  had  confidence  in  themselves,  in 
their  training,  and  in  their  leaders,  disasters  ceased,  and 
successes  took  their  place  (§ 


(4)    S2iccesses  on  the  Ocean. 

365,  The  American  Navy  had  not  been  expected  to  do 
much  in  the  war,  and  it  had  even  been  proposed  to  forbid 
its  leaving  port,  for  fear  it  might  be  captured  at  once  by 
the  British.  But  the  British  officers  and  men  had  become 
so  accustomed  to  victory  over  all  other  nations  that  they 
were  now  careless  in  training  and  discipline  ;  while  the 
little  American  navy  was  in  a  state  of  perfect  training, 
and  eager  to  show  what  it  could  do.  The  consequence 

1  During  this  invasion  of  Canada,  the  American  forces  near  Lewiston  were 
attacked.  They  retreated  disgracefully,  again  by  the  fault  of  the  com 
manding  officer,  and  left  the  whole  of  that  part  of  the  frontier  open  to  the 
British,  who  burned  and  destroyed  everywhere,  in  revenge  for  the  attacks 
upon  Canada. 


230  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1812 

was  a  succession  of  brilliant  victories  of  American  over 
British  vessels,  which  threw  the  American  people  into  a 
fever  of  rejoicing,  and  startled  the  rest  of  the  world.  It 
thoroughly  alarmed  Great  Britain.  Hitherto  her  naval 
officers  had  been  dismissed  from  her  service  if  they  ran 
away  from  a  vessel  only  a  little  superior  in  force.  Now 
they  received  strict  orders  not  to  fight  an  American  vessel 
unless  on  equal  terms. 

366.  The  First  Cruise  took  place  immediately  after  the 
declaration  of  war.      The  larger  part  of  the  little  navy  left 
New  York  and  sailed  through  the  northern  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Nothing  was  accomplished,  except  that  one  of  the  vessels, 
the  Essex,  Captain  Porter,  captured  the  British  sloop-of- 
war  Alert,  after  a  short  fight.      Another  vessel,  the  Con 
stitution,  Captain  Hull,  while  sailing  to  New  York  to  join 
in  the  cruise,  fell  in  with  a   British  fleet,  and  was  hotly 
chased.      She  escaped  into  Boston  after  a  chase  of  three 
days,  in  which  Hull  showed  admirable  skill  and  seaman 
ship.1 

367.  Constitution  and  Guerriere. — In  August,  the  Con 
stitution  put  to  sea  from   Boston.      While  cruising  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  she  fell  in  with  the  Guerriere,  one 
of  the   vessels   which   had   lately  chased   her.      The  two 
frigates  were  supposed  to  be  about  equally  matched ;   but 
in  half  an  hour  the   Guerriere  was  a  helpless,    mastless 
wreck,  with  80  of  her  crew  killed  and  wounded.      The 
Constitution  lost  but  14  men,  and  was  in  good  condition 
when  the  Guerriere  surrendered.      The   British  ship  was 
so  badly  damaged  that  she  was  burned  at  once. 

368.  Remaining  Events  of  1812. — In  October,  the  sloop- 
of-war  Wasp,  Captain  Jacob  Jones,  captured  the   British 

1  The  Constitution  ("  Old  Ironsides")  was  considered  a  lucky  ship  by 
sailors  of  the  time.  She  was  lucky,  however,  chiefly  in  having  excellent 
officers,  who  chose  good  crews  and  handled  her  well. 


1812]  SUCCESSES   ON   THE   OCEAN  231 

brig  Frolic,  off  Cape  Hatteras.  The  two  vessels  were 
about  equal  in  force,  and  the  fighting  on  both  sides  was 
of  the  most  desperate  kind.  When  the  Wasp' 's  crew 
finally  boarded  the  Frolic,  they  found  on  deck  only  the 
man  at  the  wheel,  and  three  wounded  officers.  The  two 
vessels  \vere  so  badly  damaged  that  they  were  both  cap 
tured  by  a  British  vessel,  the  Poictiers,  which  overtook 
them  the  same  day.  In  the  same  month,  the  United 
States,  Captain  Decatur  (§  342),  met  the  British  frigate 
Macedonian,  off  the  island  of  Maderia,  on  the  African 
coast,  and  captured  her  after  a  battle  of  an  hour  and  a 
half.  The  Macedonian  was  terribly  shattered,  but  Decatur 
succeeded  in  bringing  his  prize  into  New  London.  Late 
in  December,  the  Constitution,  now  commanded  by  Cap 
tain  William  Bainbridge,  captured  the  Java,  a  British 
frigate  of  nearly  equal  force,  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Brazil. 
Again  the  British  vessel  was  so  badly  damaged  that  it 
v/as  necessary  to  destroy  her. 

369.  The  Naval  Victories  of  1812  aroused  an  intense 
excitement  in  the  United  States.  For  twenty  years  Great 
Britain  had  been  at  war  with  almost  every  nation  of 
Europe,  and  out  of  hundreds  of  battles  between  single 
ships  of  equal  force  she  had  lost  but  five  vessels.  It  had 
come  to  be  a  common  saying  that,  when  France  launched 
a  vessel,  she  was  only  adding  one  to  the  British  navy. 
In  six  months,  however,  the  little  American  navy  had 
captured  five  vessels,  and  had  not  lost  a  battle.1  Votes 
of  thanks,  swords,  gold  medals,  and  silver  plate  were 
given  to  the  successful  officers ;  privateers  (§  240)  put  to 

1  In  most  of  these  battles  there  was  a  slight  superiority  on  the  side  of  the 
American  vessel.  But  the  difference  was  not  such  as  British  officers  had 
been  used  to  care  about  ;  and  the  remarkable  loss  of  life  on  the  British 
vessels  showed  that  the  accuracy  of  the  American  gunnery  was  the  main 
reason  for  the  victories. 


232  THE  SECOND    IV AR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1813 

sea  from  every  important  harbor ;  and  Congress  hurried 
to  vote  more  money  for  the  navy.  There  was  not  much 
money  in  the  treasury,  however,  and  the  ships  were  not 
built  until  after  the  war. 

370.  Victories   of    1813. — The   year    1813   opened  with 
another    victory.        In     February,    the    Hornet,    Captain 
Lawrence,  captured  the  British  brig  Peacock,  off  the  coast 
of  British  Guiana,  in  South  America.     The  Peacock  was  so 
badly  cut  up  that  she  sank  immediately  after  the  surren 
der,  carrying  down  some  of  the  men  of  both  vessels.      In 
September,    the    American    brig    Enterprise,    Lieutenant 
Burrows,    captured  the   British  brig  Bo.rcr,  off  Portland, 
Maine.      Both  commanders  were  killed. 

371.  The   Blockade Great    Britain     had    become    so 

anxious  about  the  naval  war  that  a  large  part  of  her  fleet 

was  transferred  to  the  American 
coast,  with  strict  orders  that  two 
or  three  ships  should  always  sail 
in  company,  and  that  no  single 
battle  should  be  risked  unless 
the  force  on  both  sides  should  be 
exactly  equal.  Whenever  an 
American  war-vessel  entered  a 
harbor,  a  number  of  British  ships 
at  once  sailed  thither  and  watched 
the  entrance  closely.  It  was  not  possible  for  the  larger 
American  vessels  to  get  to  sea  except  by  accident,  and 
most  of  the  fighting,  during  the  rest  of  the  war,  was  done 
by  the  smaller  vessels.  All  along  the  coast,  there  were 
almost  daily  battles  between  the  little  American  "  gun 
boats  "  (§  352)  and  the  boats  of  the  British  frigates,  in 
which  the  most  deperate  courage  was  shown  on  both  sides. 

372.  Defeats  of  1813. — The  first  American  defeat  came 
in   June.      Captain    Lawrence,    of  the  Hornet,    had   been 


DEFEATS   OF  1813 


JAMES  LAWRENCE. 


promoted  to  the  command  of  a  larger  ship,  the  Chesa 
peake.  In  this  ship  he  sailed 
out  from  Boston  harbor  and 
engaged  the  British  frigate 
Shannon,  Captain  Broke. 
The  vessels  were  equally 
matched.  But  this  time  the 
advantage  of  discipline  was 
on  the  side  of  the  British ; 
Broke  had  carefully  trained 
his  men  on  the  American 
system,  while  Lawrence  had 
not  had  time  to  do  so. 
Other  things  being  equal, 
discipline  decided  the  battle, 
and  the  Chesapeake  surrendered.  Lawrence  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  during  the  battle;  his  last  words 
were,  ''Don't  give  up  the  ship."  The  victory  excited 
as  extravagant  rejoicings  in  England  as  those  of  the 
previous  year  had  done  in  the  United  States.  In  August, 
rejoicing  was  increased  by  the  capture  of  the  American 
brig  Argus,  Captain  Allen.  The  vessel  had  been  cruising 
around  Great  Britain,  capturing  many  merchantmen,  and 
severely  injuring  British  trade.  The  British  brig  Pelican 
was  sent  to  search  for  her,  and  the  two  vessels  met  in  the 
British  Channel.  The  Pelican  was  slightly  superior  in 
force,  but  still  more  superior  in  discipline,  and,  after  a 
battle  of  an  hour,  the  Argus  surrendered. 

373.  Cruise  of  the  Essex — In  the  spring  of  18 1 3,  Captain 
Porter,  in  the  Essex,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and  sailed  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  where  no  American  frigate  had  ever 
been.  Here  he  gave  protection  to  American  vessels, 
captured  British  whalers,  and  broke  up  the  British  whaling 
trade  in  the  Pacific.  He  armed  several  of  his  prizes,  so 


234  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN        [1815 

that  he  had  at  one  time  a  considerable  fleet,  and  even  paid 
his  men  out  of  the  money  which  he  captured.  As  all  the 
countries  around  him  were  friendly  to  Great  Britain,  he 
seized  the  Marquesas  Islands  when  he  wished  to  refit  his 
fleet,  and  then  continued  his  cruise.  Early  the  next  year, 
the  Essex  entered  the  neutral  harbor  of  Valparaiso ;  and 
here  she  was  blockaded  by  two  British  vessels,  the  Phoebe 
and  the  CJiernb,  which  had  been  sent  to  search  for  her. 
In  March,  while  she  was  in  a  crippled  condition  from  an 
accident,  the  two  British  vessels  attacked  her.  They 
pelted  her  with  shot  from  a  distance,  while  she  was 
unable  to  close  with  them ;  and,  after  losing  more  than 
half  her  men,  the  Essex  surrendered.  This  was  the  most 
savage  and  desperate  struggle  of  the  war.  J 

374.  Events  of  1814. — In  addition  to  the  capture  of  the 
Essex,  there  were  three  hard-fought  battles  in    1814,  in 
all   of  which  the  American  vessels  were   successful.      In 
April,  the  Peacock,  the  name  given   to   a  new  American 
war-vessel,  took  the  Epervier  off  the  east  coast  of  Florida. 
During  the  summer,  the  Wasp,  Captain  Blakely,  took  the 
British  brigs  Reindeer  and  Avon  in  the   British   Channel. 
The  Wasp  was  probably  lost  soon  afterward  in  a  storm, 
for   she  was   never   heard   of  after   the   following   month. 
For  some  time  after  her  loss,  there  was  not  an  American 
war- vessel  on  the  ocean. 

375.  Events   of    1815. — In   January,    1815,    the   United 
States    frigate    President,    one    of   the    larger    American 
vessels,  was  captured  by  a  British  fleet  off  Long  Island, 
while  trying  to  get  to  sea  from  New  York.      In  February, 
the   Constitution   (§  367),    Captain   Stewart,    after   a   very 
skilfully  fought  battle  by  moonlight,  captured  two  British 
vessels,  the  Cyane  and  the  Levant,  off  Lisbon.     In  March, 

1  In  this  case,  the  Phoebe  alone  was  a  heavier  vessel  than  the  Essex. 


1815]  PRIVATEERS  235 

the  Hornet  captured  the  British  brig  Peng-urn,  of  equal 
force,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and,  soon  afterward, 
the  Peacock  (§  374)  captured  the  weaker  British  brig 
Nautilus,  near  the  island  of  Sumatra,  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
This  was  the  last  capture  of  the  war.  Peace  had  already 
been  made  (§  400),  and  the  Nautilus  was  restored  to  the 
British.1 

376.  Privateers  were  very  active  throughout  the  war. 
Many  of  them  were  as  large  and  powerful  as  sloops-of- 
war,  and  more  troublesome  to  the  enemy,  for  they  were 
built  for  speed.      Sometimes  they  sailed  in  fleets  of  five  or 
more;   and,    even   when   alone,    they  did  not  hesitate   to 
fight  British  war-vessels  of  equal  force,   and  were  often 
successful.      One  of  the  most  famous  was  the   Chasseur, 
Captain   Boyle,  which  for  a  long  time  in   1813   kept  the 
British  Channel  clear  of  merchantmen,  while  she  was  too 
fast  and  too  well  managed  to  be  caught  by  heavy  war- 
vessels.      She  captured  80  vessels,  50  of  which  were  of 
equal  or  superior  force  to  her  own ;  and  her  captain  issued 
a     burlesque     proclamation,     announcing    that    he     had 
blockaded  the   British   Islands,    and  forbidding   all  other 
nations  to  trade  with  them.     In  the  following  year,   1814, 
the   General  Armstrong,  Captain   Reid,  while   lying  in  a 
neutral  harbor  of  the  Azores  Islands,  was  attacked  by  a 
fleet  of  boats  from  three  British  frigates,  and  fought  them 
for  a  whole  night  before  the  ship  was  abandoned. 

377.  Naval  Losses. — During  the  three  years  of  the  war, 
each  nation  lost  about  the  same  number  of  vessels,  1,700, 
including  merchantment,  privateers,  and  war-vessels ;  but 
in  value  the  British  losses  were   somewhat  heavier.      No 

1  There  had  been  fifteen  ship-duels  during  the  war,  of  which  the  Ameri 
cans  lost  but  three,  those  of  the  Chesapeake  (§  372),  the  Argus  (§  372),  and 
the  Essex  (§  373).  Such  success  gave  the  little  American  navy  a  world- wide 
reputation  ;  and  other  nations  began,  for  the  first  time,  to  respect  the  United 
States  as  a  naval  power. 


*36  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1813 

other  nation  had  succeeded  in  inflicting  equal  losses  on 
Great  Britain.  For  example,  France,  the  principal  enemy 
of  Great  Britain,  had  received  about  fifty  times  as  much 
naval  loss  from  the  British  as  she  had  been  able  to  inflict 
upon  them. 

(5)   Successes  on  the  Lakes  :    iSi^—i^.. 

378.  The   Northern   Lakes,    Champlain,    Ontario,     and 
Erie,  were  of  importance  in  the  war.      Lake  Champlain 
was  a  part  of  the   main  route  to   Quebec   and  Montreal ; 
and  Lakes  Ontario  and  Frie  were  of  great  importance  to 
the    armies    on   their    shores.       The    country  around    the 
lakes  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Erie  was  unsettled  and 
of  comparatively  little  importance. 

379.  The  Lake  Navies  were  at  first  very  small.      The 
Americans  had  but  one  small  vessel   on  Lake   Ontario. 
The  British  had  half  a  dozen  vessels  on  each  of  the  two 
larger  lakes,    but  none  of  them  was  of  any  great  force. 
Both  sides  at  once  began  purchasing  and  arming  merchant- 
vessels  ;  but  these  were  soon  found  to  be  almost  useless 
for  fighting  purposes.      The  real  contest  was  in  building 
new  war-vessels,  and  in  this  the  Americans  were  success 
ful,    in   spite   of  their   disadvantages.      Their   side   of  the 
lakes  was  far  more  thinly  settled  than  the  Canadian  side ; 
and  they  had  to  bring  nails,  ropes,  guns,  men,  and  pro 
visions — everything    except    timber — from     the    Atlantic 
coast,   over  terribly  bad  roads.      Nevertheless  they  won 
complete  victories  on   Lakes   Erie   and    Champlain,    and 
held  their  own  on  Lake  Ontario. 

380.  Lake  Ontario. — The  operations  on  Lake  Ontario, 
though  very  interesting  to  sailors,  are  of  little  interest  in 
a  history  of  the  war.      Commodore  Chauncey  commanded 
the  American  fleet,  and  Sir  James  Yeo  the  British;   and 
neither  was  willing  to  risk  a  general  battle  if  the  other  had 


LAKE   ERIE 


237 


the  least  superiority.  They  took  turns  in  controlling  the 
lake.  If  either  was  superior  in  force,  the  other  remained 
in  port  until  he  had  built  a  new  and  stronger  vessel. 
Then  he  took  possession  of  the  lake,  and  the  other  retired 
to  a  safe  harbor  and  began  building.  Most  of  the  credit 
was  gained  by  the  ship-builders  on  both  sides,  particularly 
by  Henry  Eckford,  the  American  builder.  When  the 
war  began,  i6-gun  vessels  were  the  strongest  on  either 
side;  when  it  ended,  both  sides  were  busily  building 
i  1 2 -gun  ships,  for  crews  of  1,000  men  each.1 

381,  Lake  Erie.  —  In  the  winter  of  1812-13,  while 
Proctor  was  superior  to  the  Americans  on  land  ($  360), 
Captain  Oliver  H.  Perry 
was  sent  to  Lake  Erie  to 
form  a  navy.  He  worked 
with  the  greatest  energy, 
and  soon  had  five  new 
vessels  built  at  Erie- 
Two  of  his  fleet,  the 
Lawrence  and  the  Niag 
ara,  were  fairly  large 
vessels  ;  all  the  rest  were 
small.  Perry  found  the 
British  fleet,  under  Cap 
tain  Barclay,  off  San- 
dusky,  and  gave  battle, 
September  10,  1813. 

His     OWn    Ship,    the  Law-  OLIVER  H.  PERRY. 

rcnce,  at  first  bore  the  whole  fire  of  the  British  fleet,  and 
was  completely  disabled.  Her  sides  were  beaten  in,  and 
only  fourteen  of  her  whole  crew  were  fit  for  duty.  Perry 

1  The  Ontario  navies  were  used  for  transporting  armies  from  one  part  of 
the  lake  shore  to  another.  There  were  also  many  minor  boat-fights  ;  and 
on  one  occasion  a  general  battle  nearly  took  place. 


238  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN        [1814 


then  leaped  into  a  rowboat,  rowed  to  the  Niagara,  and 
in  her  attacked  the  exhausted  British  fleet.  The  conflict 
was  short:  the  Niagara  burst  through  the  British  line, 
firing  right  and  left  as  she  went,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  the 
whole  British  fleet  surrendered.  The  Americans  then 
controlled  the  lake;  the  fleet  carried  the  army  over  to 
Canada;  and  the  battle  of  the  Thames  followed,  and 
ended  the  war  in  the  West.1 

382.  Lake   Champlain. — During   the   summer  of   1814, 
while    there    was    peace    for    a    time    in    Europe,    Great 

Britain  sent  fresh  troops  to 
Canada,  for  the  purpose  of 
invading  northern  New 
York,  as  Burgoyne  had  done 
(§  218).  Lake  Champlain 
was  a  part  of  their  route ; 
and  on  the  lake  there  was 
an  American  fleet  under 
Commodore  Macdonough. 
The  British  fleet  was  com 
manded  by  Commodore 
Downie.  The  naval  battle, 
which  was  to  decide  the  fate 
of  the  expedition,  took  place 
September  11,  1814,  in  the  harbor  of  Pittsburgh.  The 
British  fleet  attacked  at  daybreak;  and,  after  a  desperate 
battle  of  over  two  hours,  their  four  larger  vessels  surren 
dered  and  the  others  fled.  The  British  army  at  once 
retreated,  and  the  expedition  was  given  up.2 

1  Perry's  fleet,  two  large  and  seven  small  vessels,  carried  54  guns  and  416 
men,  and  lost  123  men.  Barclay's  fleet,  two  large  and  four  small  vessels, 
carried  63  guns  and  440  men,  and  lost  135  men.  Perry's  official  despatch, 
announcing  the  victory,  read  :  "  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours: 
two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop." 

2'Macdonough's  fleet  of  four  war-vessels  and  ten  gunboats  carried  86  guns 


THOMAS  MACDONOUGH. 


1 8 14]  THE  ATLANTIC  COAST  239 


(6)   Disasters  on  t/ie  Atlantic  Coast. 

383.  The  Blockade  of  the  Atlantic   coast  was  enforced 
by  British  vessels  from  the  beginning  of  the  year  1813. 
At   first   they  were   inclined  to  spare  the  coast   of  New 
England,   which   they  supposed   to  be  friendly  to  Great 
Britain;    but   this   policy  was   soon    abandoned,   and   the 
whole   coast   was  treated    alike.      Groups  of   war-vessels 
were  stationed  before  each  of  the  principal  seaports,  and 
others  were  continually  in   motion   along  the  coast,  from 
Halifax  on  the  north  to  the  West  Indies.      Early  in  1813, 
they  took  possession  of  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay  as 
a  naval  station,  and   the  American  Government  ordered 
all   the   lights   to   be   put   out  in  the   neighboring   light 
houses. 

384.  The   Atlantic   Coast  was   thus  kept   in  a  state   of 
almost  constant  alarm,  for  the  British  vessels  were  con 
tinually  landing  men  at  exposed  points  to  burn,  plunder, 
and  destroy.      Private  property  was  seized  in  great  quan 
tities  everywhere,  and  the  war  seemed  to  the  Americans 
to  be  mainly  one  of  general  robbery  by  the  British  navy. 
In  1813,  the  defenceless  towns  of  Lewes,  Havre  de  Grace, 
and   Hampton  (near   Fortress  Monroe)  were   bombarded, 
and  Stonington,  Conn.,  in  1814;    and  a  number  of  smaller 
towns  were  burned  or  plundered.      Attacks  on  New  York 
and  other  larger  cities  were  prevented  only  by  fear  of  tor 
pedoes,    by   means   of  which   the   Americans   had   nearly 
blown   up   one   or   two   British   ships   which  ventured   too 
near  New  York.      Fulton   (§  337)  had  also  built  at  New 

and  882  men,  and  lost  about  200  men.  Downie's  fleet  of  four  war  vessels 
and  twelve  gunboats  carried  92  guns  and  937  men,  and  lost  about  300  men. 
Macdonough's  despatch,  announcing  the  victory,  read  :  "The  Almighty  has 
been  pleased  to  grant  us  a  signal  victory  on  Lake  Champlain,  in  the  capture 
of  one  frigate,  one  brig,  and  two  sloops-of-war  of  the  enemy." 


240  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       Ll8l4 


York  a  steam  floating  battery,  the  first  of  its  kind,  and  the 
reports  in  regard  to  it  helped  to  keep  the  British  at  a  safe 
distance. 

385.  Maine,  as  far  as  the  Penobscot  River,  was  seized 
by  the  British  in  1814  and  held  until  the  end  of  the  war. 
This  seizure  excited  great  alarm  in  the  rest  of  New  Eng 
land,    for  it   was    believed    that  the  enemy   intended    to 
advance  along  the  coast  in  the  following  year. 

386.  Washington. — In  August,  1814,  a  new  British  fleet 
brought  over  an  army  of  5,000  men  to  the  Chesapeake. 

They  landed  in  Maryland,  where 
the  Patuxent  River  empties  into 
the  bay,  and  set  out  on  a  march 
of  forty  miles  northwest  to  Wash 
ington.  The  American  Govern 
ment  had  utterly  neglected  to 
prepare  for  the  defence  of  the 
capital,  and  it  was  now  too  late 
to  do  so.  A  feeble  attempt  to 
resist  wras  made  at  Bladensburgh, 
a  village  near  the  capital,  but  it 
was  overpowered  at  once.  The 
British  then  entered  Washington 
and  burned  the  Capitol  and  other 
public  buildings.1 

387.  Baltimore. — After  attacking  Washington,  the  Brit 
ish  made  a  hasty  retreat  across  the  country,  and  embarked 
again    on  their  fleet.      They   then    sailed  up   the    bay  to 
attack  Baltimore.     But  that  city  made  a  stout  and  success 
ful  resistance.      The  ships  were  repulsed   in  an  attack  on 

1  This  act  of  the  British  has  been  excused  by  the  burning  of  a  public  build 
ing  in  York,  Canada,  after  its  capture  by  the  Americans  (§  362).  But  that 
act  was  not  perpetrated  by  government  order,  as  was  the  destruction  of 
Washington. 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


ATTACK  ON  WASHINGTON — COURSE 
OF  THE  BRITISH. 


1814]  THE  HARTFORD  CONVENTION  241 

Fort  McHenry,  and  the  army  withdrew,  after  an  unsuc 
cessful  battle  at  North  Point,  below  the  city,  without 
accomplishing  anything.  Its  commander,  General  Ross, 
was  killed.1 

388.  Admiral  Cockburn,  the  British  naval  commander, 
then  changed  his  headquarters  to  Cumberland   Island,  on 
the    Georgia   coast.      From   this    point,    until   peace   was 
made,  he  carried  on  a  warfare  of  robbery,  and  then  he 
retired  from  American  soil  with  his  plunder.      Before  this 
took  place,  a  large  part  of  his  land  force  took  part  in  the 
expedition  to  New  Orleans  and    shared  in  its   complete 
defeat  (§  399). 

(7)   Dissatisfaction  at  Home. 

389.  The  New  England  States  had  never  been  satisfied 
with   the   war    (§  355);   and   their   dissatisfaction   was   in 
creased   by   its   early   failures.      The    American   Govern 
ment's  management  had  not  been  very  successful.      At 
first,    its    commanders    were    not    wisely    selected.       Its 
treasury  was  badly  managed,  so  that  it  had  little  money 
and  could  with  difficulty  borrow,  even   at  high  interest. 
The   national  government  seemed  to  be  unable  to  check 
the   British  attacks  on   the  coast;   and  the   New  England 
States  came  to  believe  that  it  did  not  care  to  afford  them 
any  protection.    Finally,  late  in  1 8  14,  they  sent  delegates 
to   meet  at    Hartford,    in    Connecticut,  and    consider   the 
state  of  affairs. 

390.*  The  Hartford  Convention. — The  Hartford  Conven 
tion  was  composed  of  Federalist  delegates  from  the  States 
of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut,  with 
others  chosen  by  local  conventions  in  New  Hampshire 

1  During  the  night  attack  on  P'ort  McHenry,  the  national  song,  the 
11  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  was  written  by  Francis  S.  Key,  who  had  visited 
the  British  fleet,  to  obtain  the  release  of  some  prisoners,  and  had  been 
detained  there. 


242  THE  SECOND    IV AR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN 

and  Vermont.  Its  meetings  were  held  in  secret,  and  it 
was  supposed  to  be  plotting  to  break  up  the  Union  and 
form  a  separate  government  in  New  England.  It  made 
a  public  report,  in  which  it  urged  that  the  States  be  given 
the  right  to  defend  themselves  without  waiting  for  the 
Federal  Government,  and  that  certain  portions  of  the 
Federal  taxes  collected  in  the  States  be  assigned  to  the 
States  for  that  purpose ;  and  recommending  such  amend 
ment  of  the  Constitution  as  would  restrict  the  right  of 
Congress  to  lay  embargoes  or  declare  war.  Commissioners 
from  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  were  sent  to  Wash 
ington  to  urge  the  adoption  of  the  recommendations  by 
Congress;  but  before  they  arrived  the  war  had  ended,  and 
their  mission  came  to  nothing.  The  wide-spread  impres 
sion  that  the  proceedings  of  the  Hartford  Convention  were 
of  a  treasonable  nature  bred  great  indignation  against  it, 
and  helped  much  to  put  an  end  to  the  Federalist  party 
soon  after  the  war. 

(8)    Successes  in  the  North  :    1814. 

391.  The   Reorganization     of    the    American     army    in 
western  New  York  was  successfully  effected   during  the 
winter  of  1813-14  (§  364).      The  excellent  results  of  the 
work  were  seen  in  July,   1814,  when  the  country  was  sur 
prised  and  delighted  by  several  victories  won  by  the  same 
army   which    had    before    been    so    unsuccessful.      These 
victories,  to  be  sure,  came  too  late  to  have  much  effect  on 
the  war ;  but  they  showed  that  the  former  defeats  were  due 
to  the  generals,  not  to  the  men.      They  were  as  follows: 

392.  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane. — Early  in  July,  the 
army,    under    command    of   Brown,    Scott,    and    Ripley, 
crossed    the    Niagara    River   from    Buffalo,    and   captured 
Fort  Erie.      Turning  to  the  north,  toward  Lake  Ontario, 


THE    WAR   IN    THE  SOUTHWEST 


243 


SCALE   OF   MILES 


0          .->  15  25 

NIAGARA   FRONTIER. 


it  met  the  enemy  (July  5),  strongly  intrenched  behind  a 
little  stream  called  the  Chippewa. 
The  American  troops  were  now 
well  trained  and  well  handled, 
and  drove  the  British  out  of  their 
intrenchments  and  up  to  the 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  The 
British,  however,  received  rein 
forcements,  and  turned  back  to 
meet  the  pursuing  Americans. 
The  two  armies  met  (July  25)  at 
a  place  called  Lundy's  Lane,  or 
Bridgewater,  near  Niagara  Falls. 
The  battle,  which  began  at  sun 
set  and  lasted  until  midnight,  was  one  of  the  most  stub 
bornly  contested  of  the  war.  The  British  lost  their  com 
mander,  who  was  wounded  and  captured,  and  were  finally 
driven  some  distance  from  the  field.  But  the  Americans 
had  also  lost  heavily ;  Brown  and  Scott  were  wounded ; 
and  Ripley  the  next  morning  ordered  his  army  to  retreat 
to  Fort  Erie. 

393.  Fort  Erie  was  besieged  in  September  by  a  superior 
force    of  the    enemy;    but    Brown,    who    had    recovered, 
reassumed  command  of  the  army,  and  drove  his  besiegers 
back  again  beyond  the  Chippewa.      Before  the  winter  set 
in,  the  Americans  retired  to  their  own  side  of  the  Niagara 
River,  and  the  treaty  of  peace  soon  put  a  stop  to  further 
hostilities. 

(9)   Successes  in  the  SoutJiwcst  :    1813-15. 

394.  The  Southwest  Territory,  now  the  States  of  Alabama 
and  Mississippi,  was  at  this  time  almost  entirely  an  Indian 
country.       Its    only    important    white     settlements    were 
Natchez  and  Mobile.      Mobile  was  claimed  by  Spain  as 


244  THE  SECOND    IV AR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1814 

within  her  territory  of  Florida ;  but  the  Americans  had 
lately  taken  possession  of  it  by  force.  North  of  this  terri 
tory  was  the  State  of  Tennessee,  and  southwest  of  it  was 
New  Orleans,  the  principal  city  of  Louisiana.  The  Creeks 
were  the  principal  Indian  tribe  of  the  southwest,  and  from 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  they  took  sides  against  the 
United  States. 

395.  Fort  Mims. — Early  in  1813,  the  Tennessee  militia 
were  called  out  to  keep  the  Indians  quiet;  and,  in  order 
to  watch  the   Indian    country  from   the  west    side,   they 
marched    to    Natchez    under     General    Andrew   Jackson 
(§  438).      But  the  government  believed  that  the  Indians 
intended  to  remain  at  peace,  and   the  Tennessee  troops 
were  dismissed,  to  the  great  surprise  and  anger  of  Jack 
son.      In  August,  1813,  a  shocking  event  showed  that  the 
Creeks  did   not  intend  to  remain   at  peace.      About  500 
men,  women,  and  children  had  taken  refuge  in  Fort  Mims, 
near  Mobile;  and  the  Creeks  surprised  the  fort,  captured 
it,  and  massacred  nearly  all  who  were  in  it. 

396.  The  Creek  War.-r-The  Tennessee  troops  were  again 
called  out,  under  command  of  Jackson.      He  marched  into 
the  Indian  country,  drove  the  Creeks  from  one  stronghold 
to  another,  and  finally  broke  their  power  in  a  great  battle 
at  Tohopeka,    or   Horseshoe   Bend,    on    the    Tallapoosa 
River,  in  eastern  Alabama.      Eight  hundred  of  the  Creeks 
were  killed,  and* the  tribe  gave  up  most  of  its  territory. 
This  series  of  victories  made  Jackson  the  leading  general 
of  the  southwest. 

397.  Peace  in  Europe  had  been  attained  by  Great  Britain 
in  1814.      All  the  other  leading   nations  of  Europe  united 
with  her  in  compelling  Napoleon  to  leave  France  and  re 
tire  to  the  island  of  Elba,  in  the  Mediterranean.      Great 
Britian  was   thus  left  at  liberty  to  direct  all  her  energies 
toward   the   United   States.      One  force  went  to  Canada 


THE  BATTLE   OF  NEW  ORLEANS 


245 


{§  382) ;  another  was  sent  to  attack  Washington  (§  386) ; 
but  the  main  body  was  sent  on  a  great  expedition  against 
New  Orleans,  with  the  design  of  retaining  that  city  and 
Louisiana  when  peace  should  be  made. 

398.  The   Defence   of  the   Southwest  was    entrusted  to 
Jackson,  who  worked  with  extraordinary  energy  to  make 
it  secure.    He  raised 

volunteers  in  Ten 
nessee,  seized  the 
Spanish  town  of 
Pensacola,  which 
had  given  assist 
ance  to  the  British, 
and  then  hurried  to 
fortify  New  Orleans 
before  the  arrival 
of  the  British.  A 
few  miles  below  the 
city,  where  there 
was  only  a  narrow 
passage  between  an 
impassable  swamp 
and  the  Mississippi 
River,  he  put  up  a  line  of  intrenchments,  and  held  his 
ground  while  the  riflemen  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 
hurried  down  the  river  to  his  assistance. 

399.  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans. — The  British  expedi 
tion,  under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  entered  Lake  Borgne 
in    December,    captured     the    American    gunboats,    and 
landed  below  Jackson's   works.      The    British   numbered 
I2,OOO,  and  Jackson's  army  6,000;   but  the  British  were 
trained   and   veteran   troops,    while  the   Americans   were 
almost  as  undisciplined  as   those   at  Bunker  Hill.      For  a 
few   weeks  there  were   night-attacks   and   skirmishes,    in 


40  60 

EXPEDITION  AGAINST  NEW  ORLEANS. 


246  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1815 

which  neither  party  had  the  advantage.  January  8,  1815, 
the  whole  British  line  moved  forward,  in  a  dense  fog,  to 
attack  Jackson's  works.  Again,  as  at  Bunker  Hill,  there 
was  a  steady  silence  in  the  fortifications  until  the  British 
were  so  near  that  the  fire  of  the  riflemen  was  murderous. 
Whole  platoons  of  the  attacking  troops  fell  in  their  tracks, 
as  if  levelled  by  one  discharge.  Within  twenty-five  min 
utes  the  whole  British  line  was  in  full  retreat,  having  lost 
its  commander  and  2,500  men.  The  American  loss  was 
8  killed  and  13  wounded.  A  few  days  afterward,  the 
British  retired  to  their  ships,  and  set  sail  for  the  West 
Indies.  Peace  had  already  been  made,  though  neither 
army  knew  it. 


(10)  Peace. 

400.  Peace  Negotiations  had  been  going  on  almost  from 
the  beginning  of  the  war.     In  1813,  Russia  had  offered  to 
mediate  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States ;  that 
is,  to  assist,  as  a  friend  of  both  parties,  in  arranging  terms 
of  peace ;   but  Great  Britain  declined  the  offer.    Soon  after, 
Great   Britain   expressed   its  willingness  to   deal   directly 
with  the  United  States ;  and  President  Madison  appointed 
five  commissioners   to  arrange  a  treaty.      They  met  the 
British   commissioners  at  Ghent,  a  city  of  Belgium,  and, 
after  long  negotiations,  agreed  upon  a  treaty  of  peace  late 
in  1814  (December  24).      This  was  ratified  by  the  United 
States  and  put  a  stop  to  the  war.      Peace  had  thus  been 
agreed  upon  before  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  was  fought, 
but  there  was  then   no  ocean  telegraph  to  bring  the  news 
in  time  to  avoid  the  battle. 

401.  The  Treaty   of   Peace   settled   nothing  as    to  the 
Orders  in  Council   or  the   impressment  of  seamen,  which 
had  caused  the  war   (§  344).      These   matters,  however, 


1815]  RESULTS   OF   THE   WAR  247 

were  now  of  very  little  importance.  Napoleon  had  been 
conquered;  and  the  general  peace  in  the  world,  and  the 
ability  shown  by  the  American  navy  during  the  war, 
made  it  very  unlikely  that  any  such  difficulties  would 
occur  again.  After  the  war,  the  growing  power  of  the 
United  States  made  these  old  questions  of  still  less  im 
portance;  and  Great  Britain  never  again  attempted  to 
enforce  her  Orders  in  Council,  or  her  asserted  rights  of 
search  and  impressment.1 

402.  The   News   travelled   slowly   in    1815.      Jackson's 
victory  of  January  8  was  not  known   at  Washington  until 
February  4,  when  it  made  the  people  wild  with  joy.      The 
news   of  the  treaty  of  peace   reached  New  York  a  week 
later,  and  was  received  with  equal  pleasure.      It  was  wel 
come  to   every  one,  for  the  affairs  of  the  country  were  in 
very  bad  condition.      There  was  little  commerce,  or  busi 
ness  of  any  kind;   and  poverty  and  distress  were  general. 
Farmers  had  not  been  able  to   sell  their  crops ;  the  price 
of  all  things  had  risen ;   and  there  was  little  money  in  the 
country    with    which    to    buy.       All    classes    hoped    and 
believed  that  prosperity  would  return  with  peace. 

403.  Results  of  the  War. — The  war  had  been  a  terrible 
experience    for    the    American    people:    it    had    brought 
poverty,  distress,  defeats  as   well   as  victories,  and   much 
dissension.      But  it  taught  the  people  the  importance  of  a 
strong  national  government.      They  saw  that  their  defeats 
had  come  from  the  weakness  of  the  Federal   Government, 
and  that  it  was  the  success  of  the  Federal  Government's 
navy  which  had   for   the   first  time   gained   them  respect 
abroad.     The  Republicans  had  wished  to  keep  the  Federal 

1  In  1861,  Great  Britain  nearly  went  to  war  with  the  United  States 
because  an  American  naval  officer  exercised  the  old  right  of  search  (§  662). 
In  this  case,  the  United  States  Government  maintained  the  principle  of  the 
War  of  1812,  and  refused  to  support  the  action  of  the  naval  officer. 


248  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN       [1816 

Government  relatively  weak,  that  the  States  might  not  be 
forced  to  do  anything-  which  they  should  not  wish  to  do ; 
but  this  looked  very  differently  when  the  Republicans 
began  to  fear  that  the  New  England  States  would  attempt 
to  leave  the  Union.  From  this  time,  the  Federal  Govern 
ment  was  as  dear  to  the  Republicans  as  it  had  been  to  the 
Federalists ;  so  that  we  may  fairly  say  that  it  was  the  war 
of  1812  which  gave  the  nation  respect  at  home  as  well  as 
abroad  (§  328). 

404.  The  Barbary  States   (§  341),  during  the  war,  had 
not  only  allowed  the   British  to  capture  American  vessels 
in  their  harbors,  but  had  even  made  some  captures  them 
selves.      In    1815,    Decatur,    with    a   fleet,    was    sent    to 
demand   satisfaction   from   Algiers.      Its   frightened  ruler 
came   on   board   Decatur 's   ship  and   signed   a  treaty  by 
which  he  promised  to  pay  for  the  American  ships  illegally 
captured,  to  make  no  more  captures,  and  to  ask  no  more 
money  for   keeping  the   peace.      Decatur 's  fleet  then   set 
sail  for   Tripoli   and   Tunis,  and  forced   them   to  agree  to 
the  same  terms.      There  has  been  no  further  trouble  with 
the  Barbary  pirates. 

405.  Settlements   were   now  increasing  throughout  the 
West.      The  defeat  of  the  Creeks  (§  396)  had  opened   up 
the   southwest   to    settlement,    and   the   future    States   of 
Alabama  and  Mississippi  were   already  marked   out.      In 
the   northwest,  two   States,  Ohio  and   Indiana,  had  been 
formed,  and  the  two  future  States  of  Illinois  and  Michigan 
were   marked  out  in  the  form  of  Territories.      Louisiana 
was  admitted  as   a  State  in    1812,  and   Indiana  in    1816. 
The   settlement   of  the   whole   West   was   being   greatly 
hastened  by  the   invention  of  the   steamboat,  which   had 
now  begun  to  be  common  on  Western  rivers.      When  the 
war  broke  out,  steamboats  were  running  on   the  Hudson, 
Raritan,  Delaware,    Ohio,  and   St.    Lawrence  rivers,  and 


1816]  COMMERCE  AND  FINANCE  249 

on  Lake  Champlain ;  and  a  steam  ferryboat  had  begun 
to  take  the  place  of  the  clumsy  scows  which  ran  between 
New  York  and  Brooklyn.  In  1816,  a  steamboat 
ascended  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  to  Louisville.  The 
war  had  also  increased  the  settlement  of  western  New 
York,  and  Buffalo  and  Rochester  soon  became  important 
places. 

406.  Commerce  and  Business    revived    as    soon   as    the 
war  ended.      Farmers   found   a   market   for   their    crops; 
wealth  increased  apace ;   every  interest  prospered  except 
manufactures.       Foreign-manufactured    goods    had    been 
shut  out  of  the  country  during  the  war ;  and  many  Ameri 
cans  had  spent  much  money  in  building  factories.      When 
peace  was  made,  English  factories  sent  their  goods  to  the 
United  States,  and  sold  them  cheaper  than  the  American 
factories   could   afford   to.      The   American  owners  were 
thus  compelled  either  to  close  their  factories,  or  to  sell 
their  goods  at  a  loss.      Their  difficulties  had  a  great  influ 
ence  on   public   affairs  for  many  years  to  come,  for  the 
American   manufacturers  were    urgent  that    the  tariff  of 
duties  on  imports  should  be  made  high  enough  to  shut 
out  the  foreign  goods  (§  425). 

407.  The  National  Debt  of  the  United  States  was  now 
about    $127,000,000,   of  which    about  $80,000,000  was 
the  cost  of  the  war.      But  the  government  was  no  longer 
pressed  for  money.      From    1814  to    1815,   exports  rose 
from   $7,000,000  to   $53,000,000;    imports,    from   $13,- 
000,000  to  $113,000,000;  and  duties  paid  to  the  govern 
ment,  from  $4,000,000  to  $38,000,000. 

408.  The  National  Bank,  which  had  been  chartered  in 
I79l    (§  3°°)>  came  to  an  end  in  1811.      In  1816,  Con 
gress  chartered  a  new  National  Bank,  on  about  the  same 
plan,   for    twenty  years.      The   public   money  was  to  be 
deposited  in  it,  or  in  its  branches,  unless  the  Secretary  of 


250  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN        [1816 

the  Treasury  should  at  any  time   order  it  to  be  deposited 
elsewhere  (§  469). 

409.  Presidential  Election. — It  was  in  this  period  that 
the  Federalist  party  ceased  to  be  a  factor  of  importance 
in    national    politics.      The    party  had    performed  an  in 
estimable  service  in  the  organization  of  the  government 
under    Washington;    but    its   opposition    to    the    War  of 
1812  had  alienated  young  men,  and  cost  it  popular  sup 
port.      There  was  but  one  party  left,  the  Republican,  or, 
as   it  was   coming   to   be  called,   the  Democratic    party. 
The    Republicans,    accordingly,   had    little    opposition   in 
electing    a    successor    to    Madison.      James    Monroe,    of 
Virginia,  was  chosen  President   (1816).      He  represented 
still   more    than    Madison    the   new    feelings    which   had 
grown  out  of  the  war,   and  the  few  remaining    Federal 
ists   soon  came   to   like   him.      Daniel    D.    Tompkins,   of 
New  York,    was   chosen  Vice-President.      He  had  been 
Governor  of  his  State  during  the  war,  and  had  supported 
the  Federal  Government  vigorously.1 

410.  The  Leading  Events  of  Madison's  administrations 
were  as  follows: 

1809-13  :   Madison's  First  Term §  348 

1810:  End  of  the  Non-Intercourse  Law.  ...  349 

181 1  :  The  President  and  Little  Belt. 349 

Battle  of  Tippecanoe  (November  7).  .  350 

1812:  Admission  of  Louisiana 405 

War    declared    against    Great    Britain 

(June  18) 351 

The  Essex  takes  the  Alert  (August  13).  366 

Hull's  surrender  (August  16) 356 

The   Constitution   takes   the   Guerriere 

(Aug.  19) 367 

Battle  of  Queenstown  Heights  (Octo 
ber  13) 357 

1  The  Federalist  candidates  were  Rufus  King,  of  New  York,  for  Presi 
dent,  and  various  others  for  Vice-President.  They  received  34  out  of  221 
electoral  votes. 


1814]                      LEADING  EVENTS,   1809-1816  251 

1812:  The  Wasp  takes  the  Frolic  (October  18)  §  368 
The  United  States  takes  the  Macedonian 

(Oct.  25) 368 

The  Constitution  takes   the  Java  (De 
cember  29) 368 

1813:  Massacre   at   the   Raisin    River    (Jan 
uary  22) 359 

The  Hornet  takes   the  Peacock  (Feb 
ruary  24) 37° 

Cruise  of  the  Essex  in  the  Pacific.  .  .  .  373 

1813  :  Capture  of  York  (April  27) 362 

Siege  of  Fort  Meigs  (May  i) .  .  360 
The  Chesapeake  taken  by  the  Shannon 

(June  i) 372 

Siege  of  Fort  Stephenson  (August  2).  361 
The     Argus    taken     by     the    Pelican 

(August  14) 372 

Massacre  at  Fort  Minis  (August  30). .  395 
The  Enterprise  takes  the  Boxer  (Sep 
tember  5) 37° 

Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie  (Septem 
ber  10) 3Sl 

Battle  of  the  Thames  (October  5) ...  36j 

1814:  Battle  of  Tohopeka,  Ala.  (March  27)  396 
The  Essex  taken   by  the  Phoebe  and 

the  Cherub  (March  28) 373 

The  Peacock  takes  the  Epervier  (April 

29) 374 

The  Wasp  takes  the  Reindeer  (June  28).  374 

Capture  of  Fort  Erie  (July  3) 392 

Battle  of  Chippewa  (July  5).  .  39 2 
Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane  (July  25) ..  392 
Burning  of  Washington  (An gust  24).  386 
The  Wasp  takes  the  Avon  (September  i )  374 
Macdonough's  victory  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain  (September  1 1) 382 

Attack  on  Fort   McHenry  (September 

13) 387 

Battle  of  Fort  Erie  (September  17).  .  .  393 

Jackson  takes  Pensacola  (November  7)  398 

Hartford  Convention  (December  15)..  390 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  (December  24)  400 


252  THE  SECOND    WAR    WITH   GREAT  BRITAIN        [1816 

1815  :  Battle  of  New  Orleans  (January  8).  .  .  §  399 
The  President  taken  by  a  British  ileet 

(Jan.  15) 375 

The  Constitution  takes  the  Cvcine  and 

the  Levant  (February  20) 375 

The  Hornet  takes  the  Penguin  (March 

23) 375 

Decatur  brings  Algiers  to  terms  (June 

28) ...  404 

The  Peacock  takes  the  Nautilus  (June 

30) ...  375 

1816:  National  Bank  chartered ,  408 

Admission  of  Indiana. 405 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Causes  of  the  war  of  1812. 

2.  The  Henry  documents. 

3.  The  Hartford  Convention. 

4.  National   receipts  and   expenditures  under   Jefferson   and 
Madison. 

5.  Early  settlement  of  Indiana. 

6.  The  Cumberland  road. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  the  Non- 
Intercourse  Act  (No.  28),  Madison's  war  message  (No.  29)  and 
the  declaration  of  war  (No.  30),  the  treaty  of  Ghent  (No.  31), 
the  recommendations  of  the  Hartford  Convention  (No.  32),  and 
the  National  Bank  Act  (No.  33).  Giles's  Weekly  Register, 
begun  in  1811,  contains  a  great  amount  of  valuable  material, 
but  ill  arranged  and  difficult  to  use. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  best  general  account,  to  1817, 
is  still  Henry  Adams's  History  of  the  United  States.  The 
Memoirs  of  John  Quincy  Adams  now  become  of  importance,  as 
do  also,  among  biographies,  Morse's  John  Quincy  Adams, 
Schurz's  Henry  Clay,  Sumner's  Jackson,  Oilman's  Monroe,  and 
McLaughlin's  Lewis  Cass.  Military  events  are  treated  in 
Lossing's  Pictorial  Field- Book  of  ihe  War  of  1812  and  Inger- 
soll's  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Second  War.  For  naval  events, 
see  especially  Maclay's  History  of  the  United  States  Navy, 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  253 

Roosevelt's  Naval  War  of  1812,  and  Coggeshall's  History ^of 
American  Privateers.  On  the  opposition  to  the  war  in  New 
England,  and  the  Hartford  Convention,  see  Lodge's  George 
Cabot,  chaps.  11-13;  Barry's  Massachusetts,  vol.  in.,  pp.  407- 
422;  Quincy's/wwA  Quincy;  Lodge's  Webster;  Curtis's  Webster; 
and  Ormsby's  History  of  the  Whig  Party.  Dunn's  Indiana 
treats  the  history  of  that  State  with  particular  reference  to  the 
slavery  struggle. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Irving' s  Astoria  and  Captain 
Bonneville;  D.  G.  Mitchell's  Doctor  Johns ;  Holmes's  Old 
Ironsides. 


CHAFFER    XIV 


SOCIAL   AND    POLITICAL    READJUSTMENT 

(I)  MONROE'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:  1817-25 

JAMES  MONROE,  Va.,  President.     DANIEL  D.  TOMPKINS,  N.  Y.,  Vice- President. 

411,  The  New  President.— President  Monroe  was  not  a 
very    able    party   leader,    but    he   was   probably  for   that 

reason  a  better  President 
for  his  time.  He  had 
been  a  Revolutionary  of 
ficer,  Governor  of  Vir 
ginia,  the  Minister  to 
France  when  Louisiana 
was  bought  (§  334),  and 
Secretary  of  War;  so 
that  he  was  not  an  un 
known  man.  But  the 
new  feeling  of  national 
strength  made  it  good 
that  the  people  should 
cease  to  do  this  or  that 
simply  because  they 
loved  and  admired  Ham 
ilton  or  Jefferson  or  any 
other  party  leader,  and 
should  learn  to  support  or 
oppose  measures  according  to  their  probable  influence  on 
the  welfare  of  the  country.  Monroe  was  a  safe  President, 

254 


JAMES  MONROE. 


1817]  NEW  LEADERS  255 

who  was  not  likely  to  do  rash  or  foolish  things ;  but 
people  did  not  admire  him  or  dislike  him  enough  to  have 
their  attention  called  off  from  public  affairs. 

412.  The  New  Leaders. — At  the  same  time,  new  men 
were  coming    into    public    life.      Monroe's    Cabinet    had 
several  very   able  members.      John    Quincy  Adams,    the 
Secretary  of  State,   the   son    of  John  Adams,   of  Massa 
chusetts,  was  one  of  the  ablest.      Another  was  John  C. 
Calhoun,   of  South  Carolina,  the  Secretary  of  War,  one 
of  the  strongest  men  in   argument  that  the  country  has 
yet   produced.      Another   was  William    H.    Crawford,   of 
Georgia,    the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,   a  hard  worker, 
and  much  liked  at  the  South.      There  were  other  strong 
men  outside  of  the  Cabinet.      Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky, 
the   leader  of  the   House  of  Representatives,  was   a   man 
of  great  eloquence,  ingenious  in  contriving  ways  to  help 
Congress  out  of  difficulties,  and  a  man  whom  other  men 
were   apt   to    like    very  strongly;    and    he    was    popular, 
further,  because   he  had  done   a   great  deal  to  rouse   the 
people  to  resist  Great  Britain  in  the  War  of  1812.     Daniel 
Webster,   at   first  of  New   Hampshire   and  afterwards  of 
Massachusetts,   had   already  shown   that   he  was   even   a 
more  eloquent  speaker  than  Clay.     Finally,  outside  of  both 
Cabinet    and   Congress,    was   Andrew    Jackson,    of  Ten 
nessee,  who  had  won  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  (§  399). 
His  case  was  different  from  that  of  all  the  others.      They 
had  risen  in  public   life  by  education  or  by  showing  that 
they  had  some    form  of   ability  peculiar   to   themselves. 
He  had  risen  by  showing  that  he  was  prompt  and  vigor 
ous  in   dealing   with  unexpected  difficulties,    and  by  the 
belief  of  a  great  many  that  he  really  cared  more  for  the 
interests  of  the  people  than  did  other  leaders  of  his  time. 

413,  Era  of  Good  Feeling. — During  Monroe's  first  term, 
the  Federalist  party   entirely  disappeared   from   politics. 


256  SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT          [1821 

Its  members  either  ceased  voting  or  called  themselves 
Republicans.  This  period  is  therefore  often  called  "the 
era  of  good  feeling.  "  At  the  end  of  Monroe's  first  term, 
the  Republicans  were  successful  in  the  Presidential  elec 
tion  of  1820  without  any  opposition,  and  Monroe  and 
Tompkins  were  re-elected  President  and  Vice-President. 
But  the  vote  was  not  quite  unanimous.  One  electoral 
vote  was  cast  against  Monroe,  and  fourteen  against 
Tompkins,  so  that  they  should  not  have  the  unanimous 
vote  which  had  been  given  to  no  candidate  except  Wash 
ington. 

414.  Florida  was  added  to  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  during  this  administration.      It  had  been  a  Spanish 
possession,  and  its  governors  had  given  the  United  States 
much  trouble  during  the  war  (§  398).      After  the  close  of 
the  war,  the  Seminole   Indians  of  Florida,  aided  by  the 
Spaniards,  kept  up  hostilities  against  the  whites  of  Georgia 
and   Alabama.      Jackson,    who    still    commanded    there, 
soon  lost  all  patience,  and  marched  his  army  into  Florida. 
He  seized   Pensacola,    and  hanged   two   British  subjects, 
Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  whom  he   accused  of  leading 
the  Seminoles.     Spain  protested,  and  Pensacola  was  given 
back.      But  Florida  was  so  evidently  at  the  mercy  of  the 
United    States    that    Spain    agreed    to    sell   it  for    about 
$5,000,000.      The  treaty  was  made  in    1819,   though  it 
was  not  ratified  until  1821. 

415.  Negro  Slavery. — The  admission  of  Missouri  brought 
about  the  first  thoroughly  angry  discussion    of  slavery. 
Negro  slavery  had  in    1820  almost  entirely  disappeared 
from  the  old  States  north  of  Virginia  (§  188);   and  it  had 
been   forbidden   from   the   beginning   in   the   new   States 
north  of  the  Ohio  (§  274).      In  the  southern  States,  how 
ever,  it  showed  no  signs  of  disappearance,  for  the  cotton- 
gin  had  made  it  profitable  (§  316);  and  people  in  general 


/ 

I 


,         I 

I  — "'.. 


1821]  THE  SLAVERY  QUESTION  257 

had  not  yet  come  to  see  how  much  it  was  really  injuring 
the  industry  of  the  country.  The  first  settlers  in  Ken 
tucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi  naturally 
took  their  slaves  with  them ;  and  when  these  States  were 
admitted,  they  came  in  as  slave  States.  Slavery  existed 
in  the  Territory  of  Louisiana  when  it  was  bought  from 
France ;  Congress  did  nothing  to  stop  it ;  and  thus  Louisi 
ana  became  a  slave  State.  The  number  of  slaves  in  the 
rest  of  the  Territory  grew  steadily;  and  when  Missouri 
applied  for  admission,  it  was  as  a  slave  State. 

416,  Two  Sections  had  thus  been  formed  in  the  United 
States,  the  North  forbidding  slavery,  the  South  encourag 
ing  it.      This  one  difference   not  only  changed  the   inner 
life  of  the  two  sections,  but  made  them  opponents  of  one 
another.      Many  of  the  laws  passed  by  Congress  for  the 
whole  country  would  have  different  effects  in  the  different 
sections;   in  consequence,    one  section  or  the  other  was 
likely  to  be   aggrieved,    no    matter  what  shape  the  law 
finally  took.      As  each  section   felt  that  it  had  peculiar 
needs  of  its  own,  each  naturally  sought  to  control  Con 
gress.      Most  new  settlers  preferred  the  free  States,  where 
work  would  not  be  dishonorable ;    and  so  the  free  States 
increased  in  population  more  rapidly  than  the  slave  States. 
The  States  are  represented  in  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  according  to  their  population    (§281),    so  that  the 
growing  free  States  would  always    control    that    part  of 
Congress.      In  the  Senate,  each  State  has  an  equal  vote; 
and  a  new  slave   State,  even  with  a  smaller  population, 
would  have  as  large  a  vote  as  a  free  State.      The   only 
opportunity  of  the    South,  then,  was    in  the  Senate,   and 

it  took  care  to  balance   each  new  free  State  by  bringing       4. 
in  a  new  slave  State  at  about  the  same  time. 

417.  The  Case  of  Missouri. — There  was  no  difficulty  as 
long  as  the  new  States  were  formed  from  the  Territory 


258  SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT          [162! 

east  of  the  Mississippi,  where  slavery  had  already  been 
either  forbidden  or  permitted.  When,  however,  Missouri 
applied  for  admission  as  a  slave  State,  there  was  difficulty 
at  once,  for  each  section  wanted  the  new  State.  It  was 
necessary  that  both  Houses  of  Congress  should  agree  to 
admit  it.  The  House  of  Representatives,  which  the  free 
States  controlled,  declared  that  Missouri  should  not  come 
in  as  a  slave  State;  that  it  had  never  been  intended,  when 
the  Constitution  was  framed,  that  slavery  should  spread 
beyond  the  Mississippi,  or  new  slave  States  be  admitted; 
and  that  Congress  ought  now  to  refuse  to  admit  Missouri 
save  as  a  free  State.  In  the  Senate,  where  the  South  was 
in  control,  it  was  insisted  that  the  Constitution  had  left 
the  control  of  slavery  to  the  States ;  that  Missouri  had 
chosen  to  be  a  slave  State ;  and  that,  in  consequence, 
Congress  had  no  right  to  interfere  in  the  matter.  For 
a  time  nothing  could  be  done,  the  two  Houses  being 
unable  to  agree,  and  the  feeling  between  the  represen 
tatives  of  the  two  sections  becoming  constantly  more 
bitter. 

418.  The  Missouri  Compromise. — After  two  years  of 
heated  discussion,  the  difficulty  was  settled,  in  1820,  by 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  Missouri  was  to  be  admitted 
as  a  slave  State,  thus  granting  the  demand  of  the  South ; 
but  slavery  was  to  be  forever  prohibited  in  the  remainder 
of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  north  of  the  southern  boundary 
of  Missouri  (latitude  36°  30').  On  the  other  hand, 
Maine,  which  had  applied  for  admission  at  about  the  same 
time,  was  admitted  as  a  free  State.  Nothing  was  said  of 
the  territory  south  of  the  parallel  36°  30',  but  it  was 
understood  that  slavery  would  continue  to  exist  there,  as 
heretofore.  Under  this  compromise,  Missouri  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  Union  in  1821.  The  Missouri  Compromise 
was  mainly  the  work  of  Clay,  and  afforded  a  practical 


1824]  THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE 


settlement  of  the  territorial  side  of  the  slavery 
for  about  thirty  years. 

419,*  Other  New  States. — Three  other  new  States  were 
admitted  during  Monroe's  administrations.  Mississippi 
(1817)  was  a  part  of  the  territory  originally  claimed  by 
Georgia,  as  was  also  Alabama  (1819).  Both  of  these 
were  slave  States.  Illinois  (1818),  the  third  State  formed 
from  the  Northwest  Territory,  came  into  the  Union  sub 
ject  to  the  provisions  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  without 
slavery.  The  number  of  States  was  now  twenty-four. 

420.  The  Monroe  Doctrine. — The  former  Spanish  colonies 
in  Mexico  and  South  America  had  rebelled  and  become 
independent.      Spain  was  too  weak  to  make  them  submit, 
but  there  were  strong   suspicions   that  some  of  the  other 
governments  of  Europe  meant  to  help  Spain.      President 
Monroe   therefore   declared   in   a   message   to   Congress, 
in  1823,  that  the  United  States  had  no  intention  of  inter 
fering  with  any  war  in  Europe,  or,  with  any  recognized 
European  colonies  in  America;   but  that  no  more  Euro 
pean  colonies  should  be^ planted   in   America;    and  that 
the  United  States  would  not  view  with  indifference-^ f  an 
attempt  by  any  nation  of  Europe  to  reduce  an  independ-  ^ 
ent  nation  of  North  or  South  America  to  the  condition  of 

a  colony. "      This  very  important  principle   is  called   the 
Monroe  Doctrine,  and  has  always  since  been  the  declare 
policy  of  the  United  States  in  foreign  affairs. 

421.  La  Fayette   (§  214)  was  invited  to  pay  a  visit  to 
the  United  States  in  1824.      He  came,  an  old  man  of  68, 
to  a  country  that  had  changed  wonderfully  since  he  had 
seen  it  in  his  youth.     He  had  left  it  a  weak,  thinly  settled 
fringe  of  settlements  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  too  poor 
to  pay  its  troops.     He  found  it  a  nation  with  a  population 
of  9,633,822   in    1820    (§353),    with   States  beyond  the 
Mississippi,  with  a  powerful  and  successful  navy,  and  the 


260  SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT          [1824 

M 

prospect  of  a  still  more  wonderful  future.  In  his  youth 
he  might  have  visited  all  the  States  without  leaving  salt 
water;  now  he  had  to  travel  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
away  from  the  Atlantic  to  reach  some  of  them.  In  France, 
he  had  just  been  treated  disrespectfully  and  unkindly  by 
his  own  government;  and  Congress  and  the  country  made 
it  a  point  to  show  how  grateful  the  American  people  were 
to  him.  As  he  passed  up  New  York  Bay,  Fort  La  Fayette 
saluted  him ;  processions,  parades,  and  greetings  of  every 
sort  met  him  wherever  he  went;  and  the  whole  country 
seemed  to  stop  its  work  for  the  moment  to  give  him  a 
welcome  such  as  he  had  never  expected.  After  a  visit  of 
more  than  a  year  as  the  guest  of  the  nation,  he  was  sent 
back  to  France  in  a  United  States  frigate,  the  Brandyivinc, 
which  had  just  been  launched  and  named  in  his  honor, 
and  with  a  present  from  the  United  States  of  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  in  money,  and  a  township  of  public 
lands. 

422.  The   Condition   of  the   Country  was    not    greatly 
changed,  though  it  was  just  on  the  verge  of  great  changes. 
One     important    invention    had     been     introduced     from 
England:   lighting  by  gas  was  begun  in  1822,  and  soon 
became    common.      The    use    of   steamboats    had    made 
river-navigation  as  easy  as  at  present,  but  travelling  by 
land  was  as  difficult  as  ever.      Little  could  be   done  to 
improve  it  until  steam-railroads  were  introduced  (§  443) ; 
but  in  the  mean  time  Congress  and  the  States  voted  money 
freely  for  the  improvement  of  roads  and  the  construction 
of  canals.      New  York  led  the  way  in  this  work. 

423.  The  National  Road.  —One  of  the  difficulties  which 
had  done  most  to  keep  the  country  poor  was  the  exceed 
ing  badness  of  the  roads.      Most  of  them  were  made  by 
scraping  up  a  little  dirt  from  the  sides  of  the  road  into  the 
middle  of  it;   in  dry  weather  they  were  dusty,  and  in  wet 


1824]  TARIFF  DISCUSSION  261 

weather  they  became  mud-holes,  through  which  wagons 
or  stages  could  scarcely  travel.  All  through  this  period, 
Congress  was  appropriating  money  for  the  construction  of 
a  National  Road,  carefully  made,  with  hard  surface,  easy 
grades  and  good  bridges,  running  westward  from  Cumber 
land,  in  northwestern  Maryland.  It  was  meant  in  part 
for  the  convenience  of  emigrants,  and  in  part  for  the  pur 
pose  of  showing  the  people  how  a  good  road  ought  to  be 
made.  It  was  gradually  extended  as  far  as  Indiana,  when 
the  introduction  of  the  railroad  made  it  needless  to  build 
it  any  farther.  Many  other  roads  were  built  or  improved 
by  the  United  States  during  this  period. 

424.  The   Erie   Canal. — Freight    can    be   carried   more 
cheaply  by  canal  than  by  ordinary  roads,  and   there  was 
a  strong  desire  for  more  canals.      The  largest,  the  Erie 
Canal,  was   finished   (1825)   by  the   State   of  New  York, 
after  eight  years  of  work,  and  strong  opposition  from  those 
who  thought  it  a  waste  of  money.      De  Witt  Clinton  had 
carried  it  through,  and  his  opponents  called  it  "  Clinton's 
Big  Ditch."      But  when  it  was  found  that  it  could  carry 
freight  from  Buffalo   to   New   York  for   one-tenth  of  the 
amount  formerly  paid,  and  that  a  stream  of  trade  from  the 
Great  Lakes  was  pouring  through  the  new  canal  to  New 
York  City,  opposition  ceased,  and  other  States  began  the 
construction  of  canals,  some  of  which  received  national 
aid. 

425.  Protective  and  Revenue  Tariffs. — Much  of  the  ex 
pense  of  the   Federal   Government  is   met  by  taxes,   or 
duties,  laid  on  imports;  and  as  to  the  rates  of  such  duties 
there  are  two  opinions.      (i)   Those  who  believe  in  Pro 
tection  wish  the  duties  on  imports,  especially  on  manufac 
tured   articles,    to  be   made   high,    so  that  the   importer, 
after  paying  the  duties,  shall  be  compelled  to  charge  a 
higher  price  for  his  goods.      Then,  they  argue,  American 


262  SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT         [1824 

manufacturers  will  be  able  to  sell  their  goods  at  a  profit; 
and  the  workmen  employed  in  their  manufactories  will 
get  good  wages,  and  will  buy  the  productions  of  the 
farmers  of  the  country,  so  that  all  will  prosper  together. 
A  list  of  duties  arranged  on  this  principle  is  called  a 
Protective  Tariff,  for  it  is  meant  to  protect,  and  thereby 
increase,  home  manufactures.  (2)  Opposed  to  Protection 
is  what  is  commonly  called  Free  Trade  ;  but  this  does  not 
mean  that  there  are  to  be  no  taxes  on  imports.  Those 
who  support  it  insist  that  the  duties  should  be  made  only 
high  enough  to  provide  for  the  expenses  of  the  govern 
ment;  that,  if  Protection  is  profitable,  it  is  only  for  the 
few  manufacturers  who  are  interested,  not  for  their  work 
men  or  the  country;  that  the  country  will  produce  natu 
rally  what  it  can  make  the  most  money  out  of;  and  that, 
if  we  use  taxation  to  bring  about  productions  which  would 
not  come  naturally,  we  are  making  all  the  people  pay  part 
of  their  number  for  engaging  in  unprofitable  employments. 
A  list  of  duties  which  pays  no  attention  to  Protection  is 
called  a  Revenue  Tariff,  since  it  is  meant  only  to  provide 
revenue  for  the  government. 

426.  The  Tariff  of  1824. — The  Protectionist  policy  began 
to  increase  in  favor  with  the  people  during  this  period. 
They  remembered  their  experience  in  the  war,  when  they 
had  no  manufactories,  and  British  ships  blockaded  their 
coast,  so  that  they  could  bring  little  from  abroad ;   and 
they  were  willing   to   undertake   protection   in   order   to 
meet  the  complaints  of  American  manufacturers  (§  406). 
Congress  adopted  a  Protective  Tariff  in    1824,   and  the 
struggle    between     the    advocates    of    the    two    policies 
began. 

427.  The  Presidential  Election  in  1824  resulted  in  con 
fusion,  for  all  the  candidates  and  all  the  voters  claimed 
to   be    Republicans.      For  Vice-President,    Calhoun    was 


1825] 


JOHN   QUINCY  ADAMS 


263 


generally  supported  and  was  elected.  There  were  four 
candidates  for  Presi 
dent,  John  Quincy 
Adams  (§412),  Jackson 
(§412),  William  H. 
Crawford,  of  Georgia, 
and  Clay.  When  the 
votes  of  the  electors 
were  counted,  it  was 
found  that  none  of  the 
four  had  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number.  The 
House  of  Representa 
tives  had  then  to  choose 
a  President  from  the 
highest  three  names  on 
the  list,  Jackson, 
Adams,  and  Crawford. 
When  the  House  of 
Representatives  came 
to  choose,  as  it  was 
required  to  do  by  the 

Constitution,   the  friends  of  Clay  voted   for  Adams,   and 
he  was  elected  President.1 


(II)  JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION:   1825-3 

JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS,  Mass.,  President.     JOHN  C.  CALHOUN,  S.  C.,  Vice-President. 

428.*  The  President. — John  Quincy  Adams,  son  of  John 
Adams,  had  been  in  public  life  from  his  youth.  From 
1794  to  1 80 1,  he  was  minister  to  the  Netherlands  and 

1  There  were  99  electoral  votes  for  Jackson,  84  for  Adams,  41  for  Craw 
ford,  and  37  for  Clay.  This  election  is  often  called  the  "scrub-race  for 
the  Presidency."  Before  the  next  election,  parties  had  again  been  formed, 
and  there  were  but  two  sets  of  candidates. 


264 


SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT         [1825 


to  Prussia.  From  1803  to  1808,  he  was  a  United  States 
senator,  changing  from  a  Federalist  to  a  Democrat.  He 
was  then  minister  to  Russia,  1809-1817,  and  Secretary 

of  State  under  Monroe. 
He  was  a  man  of  upright 
character,  great  ability, 
and  high  motives;  but 
he  had  something  of  his 
father's  inability  to  make 
friends,  and  was  never  re 
garded  with  popular  favor. 
The  most  remarkable  part 
of  his  career  comes  after 
1831,  when,  as  a  mem 
ber  of  the  House  of  Rep 
resentatives,  he  cham- 
the  antislavery 


pioned 
cause. 

429,  The  Railroad. — In 
internal  affairs  this  ad- 
an  uncommon  prosperity; 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS. 

ministration  was  marked  by 
incomes,  both  those  of  the  government  and  of  private 
persons,  rapidly  increased,  and  the  public  debt  began  to 
decrease.  The  country  seemed  to  be  gathering  strength 
for  the  enormous  changes  which  it  was  to  experience 
during  the  next  few  years.  For  it  was  during  this  ad 
ministration  that  England  saw  the  invention  of  the  railroad 
locomotive,  one  of  the  greatest  events  of  modern  times, 
which  was  to  show  some  of  its  most  wonderful  effects  in 
the  United  States.  The  use  of  wooden  or  iron  rails  for 
cars  drawn  by  horses  had  been  known  in  England  for 
nearly  200  years;  and  many  Englishmen  and  Americans 
had  tried  to  use  steam  instead  of  horses.  In  England, 
early  in  the  century,  Trevithick  had  made  a  locomotive, 


1828]  RAILROADS  265 

but  it  could  only  move  slowly.  A  short  railroad,  with 
clumsy  locomotives,  was  opened  in  England  in  1825.  In 
1829,  George  Stephenson,  an  Englishman,  exhibited  his 
locomotive,  "The  Rocket,"  which  moved  at  the  rate  of 
30  miles  an  hour,  and  the  modern  railroad  system  began. 
In  the  United  States,  where  men  had  for  years  been  trying 
to  improve  the  useless  old  roads,  the  first  idea  of  the  rail 
road  was  soon  tried.  In  1827,  two  short  lines  of  rails 
were  laid  at  Quincy,  near  Boston,  and  at  Albany;  and  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  was  chartered  in  Maryland, 
though  it  was  then  intended  to  use  horses  upon  all  these. 
In  1828,  the  first  trip  with  an  English  locomotive  was 
made  on  a  Pennsylvania  railroad,  near  Mauch  Chunk; 
and  a  new  railroad,  expressly  for  steam,  was  chartered  in 
South  Carolina,  to  run  westward  from  Charleston.  In 
the  following  administration,  the  new  system  of  Stephen- 
son  was  fully  introduced  into  the  United  States  (§  443). 

430.  Settlement  had  now  seized  firmly  upon  most  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Mississippi.      Treaties  had  been  made 
by  the  government  with  each  Indian  tribe,  by  which  the 
Indians  sold  their  lands  to  the  government  for  settlement, 
and  removed  beyond  the  Mississippi.      To  this  there  were 
two  exceptions.      In  the  northwest,  the  territory  covered 
by  the  present  State  of  Wisconsin  was  not  yet  needed  by 
settlers;   and  in  the  southwest,  some  of  the  Georgia  and 
Alabama   Indians  refused  to  sell  their    lands    for   settle 
ment. 

431.  The  Cherokees  were  now  the  most  powerful  tribe 
of  Indians  in  Georgia  and  Alabama,  since  the  Creeks  had 
been  overthrown  by  Jackson  (§  396).      They  were  intelli 
gent    and    educated;    they   had    churches,    schools,    and 
newspapers  of  their  own  ;  and  they  refused  to  remove  across 
the   Mississippi.      Finally,   the   State   of  Georgia  became 
impatient,  and  decided  to  force  the  Indians  to  go.      Presi- 


266  SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT         [1828 

dent  Adams,  in  1827,  interfered  to  protect  the  Indians, 
but  Georgia  declared  its  intention'  to  resist  the  Federal 
Government,  if  necessary,  by  force.  The  State  was  at 
last  successful  in  compelling  the  Cherokees  to  remove.1 

432.  Jefferson  and  John  Adams    died   almost  together, 
July  4,  1826,  each  believing  that  the  other  was  left  alive. 
The  day  of  their  death  was  a  coincidence  so  remarkable 
as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  whole  country.      It  was 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  oi"  which  Jefferson  was  the  author  and 
Adams  the  principal    supporter   (§  206).      The  two  had 
quarrelled  in  1801,  when  Jefferson  succeeded  Adams  as 
President,  but  they  became  close  friends  again  afterward. 

433.  Political  Contest  was  renewed  during  this  adminis 
tration.      The  "era  of  good  feeling  "  (§  413)  came  to  an 
end,  and  political  excitement  rose  higher  than  it  had  done 
for  thirty  years  before.      Most  of  it  came  from  the  policy 
of  high  tariffs  and  internal  improvements,  which  had  been 
begun  under  Monroe  (§  422). 

434.  The  American  System. — Clay  had  become  Adams's 
Secretary  of  State,   and  the    two  supported  warmly  the 
system  already  begun  in  Congress.      In  1828,  anew  tariff 
of  still  higher  duties  was  adopted ;  and  the  revenue  which 
came  from  it  was  spent  in  improving  roads,  constructing 
canals,  and  deepening  rivers  and  harbors.      This  union  of 
a  protective  tariff  and  internal  improvements  was  known 
as    the    ' '  American    System  ' ' ;    and    it    soon    afterward 
became   the  foundation  of  the  new  Whig  party,  of  which 
Clay  was  the  leader  (§  479). 

435.  The  Two  Sections,  North  and  South  (§  416),  had 
grown  to  be  very  different  in  many  respects,  and  it  was 
by  this  time  as  difficult  for  one  Congress  to  make  laws  to 

1  This  was  not  accomplished  until   1835,  when  the   Federal  Government 
induced  the  Indians  to  make  a  treaty  and  sell  their  lands  (§463). 


1828] 


THE  AMERICAN  SYSTEM 


267 


suit  them  both  as  it  had  been  for  the  British  Parliament  to 
make  laws  to  suit  both 
Great  Britain  and  the 
colonies.  This  was  es 
pecially  the  case  in  re 
gard  to  the  American 

o 

System,  which  under 
took  to  encourage  manu 
factures  by  increasing 
the  duties  on  foreign 
goods.  Whatever  profit 
was  derived  from  it  by 
factories  went  to  the 
North,  where  all  the 
factories  were  located. 
Labor  in  the  South  was 
performed  by  negro 
slaves;  and  men  who 
worked  only  because 
they  were  forced  to  do 
so  were  of  no  use  in  manufacturing  (§  618). 

436.  The  Complaint  of  the  South  was,  therefore,  that  its 
people  were  made  to  pay  higher  prices  for  goods  imported 
from  abroad,  as  well  as  for  those  produced  at  home,  in 
order  to  give  profits  to  Northern  manufacturers.  The  sup 
porters  of  the  American  System  answered  that  the  South 
ern  cotton-planters  received  their  share  of  the  profits  by 
having  a  nearer  market  and  better  prices  for  their  cotton. 
But  the  South  refused  to  be  convinced,  and  considered  its 
people  unfairly  treated.  When  the  tariff  duties  were  in 
creased  in  1828,  the  legislatures  of  several  Southern  States 
protested  against  the  act  as  unfair  and  unconstitutional ; 
and  in  the  Presidential  election  of  the  same  year  the  whole 
electoral  vote  of  the  South  was  thrown  againsf  Adams. 


CLAY. 


268  SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT          [1828 

437.  Two  Parties  were  thus  formed  out  of  the  old  party 
whose  members  had  called  themselves  either  Republicans 
or   Democrats  since  about   1812.      Those  led  by  Adams 
and    Clay,    who   supported   the   American    System,    now 
began  to  call  themselves  National  Republicans ; 1  and  their 
opponents,  who  disliked  the  American  System,  began  to 
call   themselves    Democrats.       Toward   the    end    of  this 
administration,  the  division  had  extended  so  far  that  the 
two  parts  of  the  former   Republican  party  were  two  dis 
tinct  parties. 

438.  The  Presidential  Election  in  1828  was  contested  by 
the  two  new  parties,  and  was  one  of  great  excitement. 
The  National  Republicans  supported  Adams  and  Richard 
Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  for  President  and  Vice-President; 
while  the  Democrats,  or  "Jackson  men"  as  they  were 
often   called,    supported    Jackson    and    Calhoun.      There 
were  many  circumstances  in  Jackson's  favor,  in  addition 
to  the  vote  of  the  whole  South  for  him  (§  436).      He  was 
very  much  liked  by  the  people  everywhere ;  his  military 
services,  particularly  at  New  Orleans,  helped  him  greatly; 
and   many   thought   that   he    ought   fairly   to   have   been 
chosen  President  in  1824  by  the  House  of  Representatives, 
since   he  then   had  a  larger  electoral   vote  than  Adams 
(§  427,  note).      For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  Demo 
crats   were   successful,    and   Jackson   and    Calhoun  were 
elected.      They  received    178  electoral   votes,   to  83    for 
their  opponents. 

439.  John   Quincy  Adams,    like    his    father,    was    thus 
defeated   after   a   single  term   of  office;    and   these  two, 
father  and  son,  are  the  only  one-term  Presidents  in  the 
first  half-century  after  1789.      The  tariff  was  not  the  chief 
reason  for  the  son's  defeat.      In  the  case  of  both  father 

1  During  the  following  administration,  the  National  Republicans  took  the 
name  of  the  Whig  party  (§  479). 


LEADING   EVENTS,    1817-1828  269 

and  son,  the  defeat  came  very  largely  from  the  rise  of  new 
ideas.  In  1800,  the  old  colonial  ideas  of  "strong 
government"  were  overthrown.  In  1828,  the  change 
of  government  was  made  mainly  because  the  people  had 
no  liking  for  Adams's  administration,  even  though  they 
had  no  great  reason  to  dislike  it:  the  government  was 
changed  because  the  people  had  changed. 

440.   The   Leading   Events    of    the    administrations    of 
Monroe  and  John  Quincy  Adams  were  as  follows : 

1 8 1 7-2 1 :   Monroe's  First  Term §  4 1 1 

1817:  Admission  of  Mississippi .  .  419 

1 8 1 8  :  Admission  of  Illinois 419 

Jackson  seizes  Pensacola 414 

1819:  Admission  of  Alabama ..  419 

Treaty  for  the  annexation  of  Florida..  414 

1820:  Admission  of  Maine 418 

Missouri  Compromise 4 1 8 

1821 :  Admission  of  Missouri 418 

1821-5  :   Monroe's  Second  Term 413 

1 8  2  2  :  Congress  begins  the   construction    of 

roads 422 

1823:  The  Monroe  Doctrine 420 

1824  :  La  Fayette's  visit  to  the  United  States  421 

A  Protective  Tariff  adopted 426 

Disputed  Presidential  election 427 

1825-9:  John  Quincy  Adams's  Term 428 

1826:  Death  of  Jefferson  and  John  Adams.  .  43 2 

1827:  Cherokee  troubles  in  Georgia 43 l 

Horse-railroads  introduced 429 

1828  :  Introduction  of  an  English  locomotive  429 

A  new  protective  tariff  adopted 434 

Formation  of  new  parties 436 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Jackson  in  Florida. 

2.  The  removal  of  the  Cherokees. 

3.  The  Cumberland  road. 

4.  The  Holy  Alliance. 

5.  The  revolt  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America. 


270  SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL   READJUSTMENT 

6.  The   character   and   political   principles   of   John    Quincy 
Adams. 

7.  The  "  tariff  of  abominations." 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  important 
documents  relating  to  the  Missouri  Compromise  (Nos.  35-41), 
the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  (No.  42),'  the  passage  from  Monroe's 
message  enunciating  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (No.  43),  and  the 
protests  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  against  the  tariff  of  1828 
(Nos.  44  and  45).  The  Annals  of  Congress,  which  ends  with 
1824,  is  continued  to  1837  by  the  Register  cf  Debates,  known 
also  as  the  Congressional  Debates.  The  American  State  Papers 
extends  to  about  1828.  To  the  collected  writings  of  statesmen 
should  now  be  added  those  of  Calhoun,  Webster,  and  Clay. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — There  is  as  yet  no  first-rate  extended 
account  of  the  period  from  1817  to  1850,  outside  of  the  com 
prehensive  histories  of  Schouler,  McMaster,  and  Von  Hoist. 
Hildreth  stops  with  1821.  Burgess's  Middle  Periodic  a  useful 
single  volume  on  the  political  side.  The  presidential  elections 
are  treated  in  Stanwood,  chaps.  9-11.  Important  biographies, 
in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  are  Von  Hoist's 
Calhoun,  Roosevelt's  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Henry  Adams's  John 
Randolph,  and  Shepard's  Van  Bur  en.  John  Quincy  Adams's 
Memoirs  can  now  be  supplemented  by  Benton's  Thirty  Years 
Vieiv.  Among  books  of  reminiscence,  none  is  more  entertain 
ing  than  Josiah  Quincy's  Figures  of  the  Past.  A  number  of 
works  dealing  primarily  with  the  slavery  controversy  now 
become  of  importance,  among  them  Wilson's  Slave  Power, 
Greeley's  American  Conflict,  and  Alex.  H.  Stephens's  ''War 
between  the  States.  On  the  financial  side  see  Bolles's  Financial 
History  and  Taussig's  Tariff  History.  For  State  histories, 
Williamson's  Maine,  Carr's  Missouri,  Lowry  and  McCardle's 
Mississippi,  and  Pickett's  Alabama  are  useful. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — See  under  Chapter  XV.,  post. 


CHAPTER    XV 

JACKSON   AND   VAN    BUREN 

1829-1841 

(I)  JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:   1829-37 

(  JOHN-  C   CALHOUN,  S.  C  ,  Vice-Pres.,  1829-33. 
ANDREW  JACKSON,  Term.,  Pres.      ]  £IARTIN  VAN  BUREN,  N.  Y.,  Vice-Pres.,  ,833-37. 

441,  The  New  President. — Andrew  Jackson  was  a  very 
different  person  from  those  who  had  hitherto  filled  the 
office  of  President.  They  had  been  educated  men,  long- 
trained  in  public  life,  and  quiet  and  dignified  in  manner. 
His  life  had  been  spent  on  the  frontier,  in  farming,  or 
fighting  battles  with  Indians  or  British,  or  duels  with 
enemies  among  his  neighbors;  he  had  little  education  and 
a  violent  temper;  and  his  manners  were  odd.  But  he 
was  intensely  honest ;  no  power  or  influence  could  make 
him  consent  to  anything  which  he  believed  to  be  of  dis 
advantage  to  the  people ;  and  he  resisted  any  such 
measure  with  such  persistence  that  the  common  name  for 
him  was  "  Old  Hickory."  He  was  a  crabbed  old  soldier, 
who  \vas  determined  to  do  right,  but  to  do  right  in  his 
own  way;  and  he  had  little  respect  for  dignity  in  a  man 
unless  the  man  had  other  good  qualities  than  dignity. 
He  did  the  country  some  harm,  and  a  great  deal  of  good ; 
but  this  change  of  Presidents,  which  seemed  shocking  to 
many  persons  at  the  time,  was  only  part  of  a  general 
change  among  the  people. 

271 


272  JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN  [1829 

442.  A  Wonderful  Prosperity  marked  the  whole  of  Jack 
son's  presidency.  Very  much  of  it  was  due  to  the  in 
troduction  of  the  locomotive,  a  machine  which  changed 
the  whole  life  of  the  people  at  a  single  step  (§  429). 


ANDREW  JACKSON. 


Poor  roads  had  hitherto  compelled  Americans  to  move 
slowly,  while  they  were  eager  to  move  quickly,  and  the 
enormous  extent  of  their  country  had  been  more  trouble 
some  than  valuable  to  them ;  but  they  now  found  the  very 


1831]  RAILROADS  273 

instrument  they  needed.  They  began  to  move,  act, 
think,  and  speak  in  an  entirely  new  fashion.  These  eight 
years  are  the  first  that  are  altogether  like  our  own  times, 
though  on  a  much  smaller  scale;  they  are  the  beginning 
of  the  modern  history  of  the  United  States. 

443.  The  Locomotive  Engine  of  Stephenson  was  brought 
from  England  to  the  United  States  in  1831.  But  the 
Americans  at  once  set  to  work  to  make  their  own  engines, 
and  soon  succeeded,  though  their  first  attempts  were 
naturally  very  clumsy  and  unserviceable.  The  first 
successful  American  locomotive  was  built  in  1833.  ^ 


differed  from  the  English  locomotives  in  many  respects, 
and  suited  our  roads  and  climate  better ;  and  since  then 
we  have  built  our  own.1 

444.  The  Railroad  System  grew  rapidly.  Before  1835 
there  \vere  nineteen  railroads  built  or  under  construction, 
their  united  length  being  twice  the  length  of  the  island  of 
Great  Britain.  Before  the  end  of  Jackson's  second  term, 
there  were  1,500  miles  of  railroad  in  operation,  and  a 
great  number  of  miles  were  being  built.  Within  the  next 
four  years,  nearly  all  the  chief  cities  of  the  eastern  States 
were  connected  by  railroad,  and  the  system  had  begun  to 
spread  through  the  western  States.  From  this  time,  it 
is  useless  to  attempt  to  state  the  advance  of  the  railroad 

1  This  first  successful  American  locomotive,,  the  "Arabian,"  was  still 
running  in  1883.  It  was  exhibited  at  the  Chicago  railway  exposition,  and 
was  burned  by  accident  at  Pittsburgh  in  the  same  year 


274  JACKSON  AND   I/ AN  BUREN  [1831 

system ;  the  figures  are  so  large  that  they  carry  no  ideas 
with  them.  It  will  be  enough  to  say  that  there  are  now, 
in  the  United  States,  nearly  as  many  miles  of  railroad  as 
there  are  in  all  the  other  countries  of  the  world  taken 
together. 

445.  The   Advantages   of    the    Railroad   System    were 
beyond  calculation.      Wherever  it  went,  it  changed  the 
life  of  the  people,  opened  up  new  country  to  settlers,  and 
made  settlements  possible  by  carrying  crops  and  goods 
easily.      It  gave  the  United  States  the  advantages  of  a 
small    country  with    the    wealth    of   one   of  the    largest 
countries  of  the  world.      Before   1830,  men  thought  that 
it  would  require  two  or  three  hundred  years  for  settle 
ments  to  reach  the  Rocky  Mountains:   the  railroad  has 
done  the  work  already. 

446.  Anthracite  Coal  (§  338)  was  first  used  successfully 
on   steamboats  and  railroads  in  1836  and  1837.      It  con~ 
tained  so  much  fuel  in  so  small  a  space  that  its  use  aided 
both    steamboats   and   railroads   very   much.      They  had 
both  generally  used  wood  for  fuel  up  to  this  time. 

447.  The   Screw   Propeller,  to   take   the  place    of   side 
wheels  in  ocean  steamers,  was  introduced  by  John  Erics 
son  in  1836.      This  required  less  fuel  in  a  heavy  sea,  and 
thus    promoted    ocean    navigation    between    the    United 
States   and   Europe.      The    screw    propeller,   which   was 
under  water  and  out  of  the  reach  of  an   enemy's   shot, 
brought  steam  war-vessels  into  use,  and  these  began  to 
replace  the  sailing-vessels  which  had  before  composed  the 
navies  of  the  world.      Ocean  navigation  by  steam,  which 
had   been    attempted  in    1819   (§  337),    was    successfully 
begun    in    1838,    when    the    Sirius    and   Great    Western 
crossed  the  Atlantic  from  England  to  the  United  States. 

448.  Other    Inventions   marked  this  period.      In    1834, 
McCormick   took   out   a   patent   for    a    reaping-machine. 


i«33] 


GROWTH   OF   THE   WEST 


275 


Such  machines  had  previously  been  tried  in  England  and 
the  United  States  without  success  (§  338);  but  in  the 
next  dozen  years  they  were  perfected.  They  made  farm 
ing  far  easier  than  before,  and  western  lands  more  profit 
able.  Colt  patented  his  revolving  pistol  in  1835,  and 
with  it  came  a  great  change  in  the  forms  of  firearms. 
About  1836,  the  manufacture  of  friction  matches  began 
to  do  away  with  the  former  clumsy  ways  of  obtaining 
fire.  Hardly  anything  has  increased  the  comfort  of  daily 
life  so  much  as  this  one  little  invention. 

449.  The  Western  States  had  now  fairly  begun  their 
wonderful  growth.  Steamboats  were  carrying  settlers 
and  trade  along  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  the  smaller 
rivers,  and  the  great  lakes.  Almost  all  the  present 
western  cities,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  had  by  this  time 
appeared,  though  they  were  still  small.  During  this 
period  the  western  steamboats  increased  fourfold,  and  they 
built  up  towns  as  if  by  magic.  When  the  first  steamboat 
appeared  at  Fort  Dearborn  in  1833,  there  was  no  town 
there;  six  years  afterward,  the  settlement  had  become  the 


CHICAGO  IN  1830. — FORT  DEARBORN. 


flourishing  town  of  Chicago,  and  a  line  of  eight  splendid 
steamers  was  running  to  it  from  Buffalo  and  Detroit. 

450,  The  Eastern  States  were  growing  almost  as  rapidly 
as  the  West,  and  their  cities  no  longer  looked  like  over- 


276  JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN  [1835 

grown  villages.  A  "great  fire"  in  New  York  City,  in 
1835-,  destroyed  $20,000,000  worth  of  property,  more 
than  the  whole  yearly  receipts  of  the  Federal  Government 
had -been  before  the  War  of  1812;  but  the  loss  did  not 
permanently  injure  the  city.  In  the  same  year,  New 
York  City  began  the  construction  of  the  Croton  Aqueduct, 
which  was  finished  seven  years  afterward,  and  supplies  it 
with  water  from  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  Because  of  the 
increase  of  manufactures,  new  cities,  like  Lowell  and 
Paterson,  were  appearing;  and  the  older  cities  felt  the 
same  influence. 

451.  The  Map  of  the  United  States  in    1835  was  ver7 
much  the  same  as  at  present,  east  of  Pittsburgh,  though 
the  cities  have  since  grown  far  larger,  and  the  railroads 
more    numerous.       West    of    Pittsburgh     such    cities    as 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  Atlanta,  and 
Montgomery  were  not  yet  on  the    general  maps :    they 
were  then  either  small  villages  or  frontier  forts.      North 
and  west  of  Missouri,  the  country  was  still  a  wilderness. 
Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on   the  Pacific   coast,  the 
country  was  still  almost  unknown  (§  528). 

452.  The  Population  of  the  United  States  in  1830  was 
12,866,020,  an  increase  of  3,000,000  in  ten  years  (§421), 
and   nearly  four  times  as  many  as  in    1790   (§  313).      In 
1790,  there  had  been  only  75   post-offices  in  the  United 
States:   in  1830,  there  were  8,450,  more  than  a  hundred 
times  as  many.      Immigration  from  Europe  had  begun, 
and  the  steamboats  and   railroads  made  it  easy  for  the 
immigrants   to  reach  the  fertile  West.      The  receipts  of 
the  Federal    Government    from  the  sales  of  its    western 
lands  rose  rapidly  from    $1,000,000    to    $25,000,000    a 
year. 

453.  The  National  Debt  was  practically  paid  off  in  1835  ; 
and,  for  the  first  time  in  its  experience,  the  Federal  Gov- 


52    West  from     87     Greenwich      83 


e~West      15    from  "Washington        10 


1837]  INTERNAL  AFFAIRS  277 

ernment  found  that  it  was  receiving  more  money  than  it 
could  use.  The  amount  not  needed  was  divided  among 
the  States.  But  the  States  were  as  prosperous  as  the 
Federal  Government.  They  borrowed  and  spent  money 
freely  for  the  construction  of  railroads  and  canals;  and, 
though  many  of  their  plans  were  not  wise,  they  aided  im 
migration  and  settlement.  Private  prosperity  was  also 
general.  The  crops  were  abundant;  manufactures  were 
increasing;  the  banks  doubled  their  number  and  capital; 
and  every  one  seemed  to  expect  to  become  rich  in  a  day. 

454.*  New  States. — Arkansas,  a  part  of  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1836.  When 
Louisiana  was  admitted,  Arkansas  had  become  a  part  of 
Missouri  Territory,  and  was  later,  in  1819,  given  a  terri 
torial  government  of  its  own.  It  was  the  only  slave 
State  to  be  formed  out  of  the  region  south  of  latitude  36° 
30',  after  the  Missouri  Compromise.  Michigan,  the  fourth 
State  formed  out  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  came  in  as 
a  free  State  in  1837,  after  a  delay  due  to  a  boundary  dis 
pute  with  Ohio. 

455,  Education. —  Public  schools  had  now  been  estab 
lished  in  almost  all  the  States,  and  the  public  school 
system  had  come  to  be  recognized  as  a  necessary  part  of 
American  life.  It  was  realized  that  where  every  man 
votes,  the  State  must,  in  self-defence,  see  that,  so  far  as 
possible,  every  man  is  taught  enough  to  enable  him  to 
vote  wisely.  Massachusetts  now  made  the  system  still 
better  by  beginning  the  normal  school  system,  for  train 
ing  public  school  teachers.  There  were  at  this  time  64 
colleges  in  the  United  States.  During  this  period  most 
of  the  States  began  geological  surveys.  They  have  been 
followed  up  by  the  Coast  Survey,  and  other  government 
surveys,  until  a  large  part  of  the  surface  of  the  country 
has  been  thoroughly  mapped  out. 


WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT. 


JOHN  GREEN-LEAF  WHITTIHR. 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGEELLOW. 


OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES. 


(278) 


1830]  AMERICAN  LITERATURE  279 

456.  Newspapers  began  to  change  their  form  about  this 
time.      In  1833   appeared  the  first  issue  of  the  New  York 
Sun,  the  first  of  the  newspapers  of  small  price  and  large 
circulation.      It  was  followed,  two  years  afterward,  by  the 
New    York   Herald,    which    introduced   the   activity   and 
enterprise  in  collecting  news  which  mark  modern   news 
papers. 

457.  American   Literature  before    1830.  —  An    English 
writer  had  asked,  with  some  contempt,   "Who  reads  an 
American  book  ?  ' '      The  question  was  hardly  a  fair  one, 
for  before    1830  there  were  American  books  well  worth 
reading.    Bryant,  Dana,  Halleck,  and  Drake,  the  advance- 
guard  of  the  American  poets,  had  made  their  appearance; 
Washington   Irving  had  been  recognized   as  a  master  of 
prose  writing ;  J.  Fenimore  Cooper  had  published  The  Last 
of  the  Mohicans;  and   Noah  Webster  had  issued  the  first 
edition   of  his   English   dictionary.      And  yet  it  must   be 
confessed  that  American   literature  before   1830  was  still 
weak. 

458.  American  Literature  after  1830. — These  eight  years 
of  Jackson's  administrations  were  the  beginning  of  a  real 
American    branch    of   English    literature.      Three    poets 
made    their    appearance,    Whittier     (1831),    Longfellow 
(1833),   and  Oliver  Wendell   Holmes   (1837).      P°e  was 
still    a   southern    magazine    editor,    but 'was   soon   to   be 
recognized   as   both   a   poet  and   prose-\vriter   of  genius. 
Hawthorne  published  his  first  important  work,  Twice-  Told 
Tales  (1837).      Bancroft  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
History  of  the  United  States   (1834).      Prescott  published 
his  Ferdinand  and  Isabella   (1837).      For  music,    sculp 
ture,   and    the    drama   the    country  still    depended    upon 
foreigners. 

459.  Political  Writing  had  lost  something  of  the  force 
for    which    Americans    had    formerly    been    remarkable 


NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE. 


WASHINGTON  IRVING. 


EDGAR  ALLAN  POE. 


JAMES  FENIMORE  COOPER. 


(280) 


1830]  POLITICAL   WRITING  281 

(§  187).      But  oratory  had  improved :   Webster  was  prob 
ably  the   greatest  of  all:' the  orators   that  have  used   the 


DANIEL  WEBSTER. 

English  language;  Clay  was  not  much  inferior  to 
Webster;  and  Calhoun,  though  not  a  great  orator,  could 
hardly  be  surpassed  as  a  master  of  pure  argument.  In 
law,  Marshall,  Story,  and  Kent  were  the  best-known 
names ;  but  the  number  of  able  lawyers  was  very  great. 

460.  The  Washingtonian  Movement,  the  parent  of  the 
present  temperance  societies,  gained  its  greatest  strength 
during  this  period.  Drunkenness  had  been  an  enormous 
vice,  though  no  greater  in  the  United  States  than  in  other 
countries.  It  had  been  considered  quite  proper  for  a 
gentleman  to  get  drunk  after  dinner,  and  not  very  im 
proper  for  a  clergyman  to  own  a  distillery.  New  England 
rum  and  other  strong  liquors  were  expected  to  be  offered 


282  JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN  [l83* 

to  visitors,  callers,  or  workmen ;  and  drunkenness  was  too 
common  to  be  good  reason  for  surprise.  As  a  remedy, 
the  Washingtonian  societies  did  not  usually  demand  a 
pledge  of  total  abstinence,  as  is  now  the  case.  But  their 
pledge  had  the  same  idea  as  those  of  the  present  temper 
ance  societies — the  solemn  promise  of  the  drunkard  to 
reform,  and  of  others,  not  drunkards,  to  set  him  a  good 
example.. 

461.  The  Prisons,  in  most  of  the  States,   had  hitherto 
been    conducted    on    the   brutal    system  which  was   then 
common  in  other  countries.      One  State  had  used  an  old 
copper-mine  as  a   State  prison ;  and  most  of  the  States 
used  whipping   and  torture,  under  which  criminals  grew 
worse.      About   this   time,    the   penitentiary   system   was 
introduced :   labor  took  the  place  of  whipping,  and  some 
real  effort  was  made  to  reform  the  criminals.      The  foolish 
and  cruel  system  of  imprisonment  for  debt  also  began  to  be 
abolished. 

462.  The  Abolitionists. — With  changes  of  such  far-reach 
ing  importance  going  on,  it  was  impossible  for  people  to 
continue  to  feel  as   they  had  felt  about  slavery.      Many 
good  people  had  hoped  that,  with  the  spread  of  population 
and  the  growth  of  industry,  slavery  would  gradually  dis 
appear.      In  1831,  however,  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  the 
editor  of  a  newspaper  called  the  "Liberator,"  published 
in   Boston,    called  for  the  immediate   and   unconditional 
abolition  of  slavery.      Those  who  agreed  with   him  were 
called  Abolitionists,  and  shortly  organized   an  American 
Antislavery  Society.    Similar  societies  multiplied,  greatly 
to  the  alarm  of  the  South.      The  alarm  was  increased  by 
an  unsuccessful  negro  insurrection,  under  the  lead  of  one 
Nat   Turner,   in  Virginia,    which   the   Abolitionists  were 
falsely  charged  with  instigating;    and  thus  new  occasions 
arose  to  increase  the  ill  feeling  between  the  two  sections. 


INDIAN  DIFFICULTIES 


283 


463.  Indian  Difficulties  were  numerous  during  this 
period.  The  Georgia  Cherokees  were  at  last  moved 
across  the  Mississippi  (§  431).  The  Indians  in  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  and  Iowa,  led  by  Black  Hawk,  revolted,  and 


BORMAV    It    CO.,    ENGR'S, 


were  put  down  only  after  hard  fighting.  As  a  result,  they 
gave  up  most  of  their  lands.  The  most  serious  war  was 
with  the  Seminole  Indians,  in  Florida,  who  were  led  by 


284  JACKSON  AND   YAN  BUREN  [1832 

Osceola.  Many  negro  slaves  had  fled  to  them  from 
neighboring  States,  and  the  Indians  refused  to  give  them 
up  as  the  price  of  peace.  The  war  began  in  1835,  with 
the  massacre  of  Major  Dade  and  about  100  men,  near  the 
Withlacoochee  River,  and  lasted  for  about  seven  years. 
The  Indians  took  refuge  in  the  swamps  and  everglades, 
where  it  was  very  difficult  for  the  soliders  to  find  them. 
Nevertheless,  they  were  beaten  in  many  small  battles, 
and  in  one  great  battle,  by  Taylor,  near  Lake  Okechobee; 
and  finally  they,  too,  were  removed  beyond  the  Missis 
sippi.1 

464.  In  Foreign  Affairs  the   Federal    Government   was 
able  to  take  a  firmer  tone  than  it  had  ever   done  before. 
For  thirty  years  it  had  been   endeavoring  to  obtain  pay 
ment  from  France  for  injuries  done  to  American  commerce 
(§  318).      France   was    slow   in    paying;    and    President 
Jackson  recommended  to  Congress,  without  any  appear 
ance    of  anger,    that   enough    French   vessels    should    be 
captured    to    make    up    the    amount    due.       France   was 
exceedingly  angry,  and  threatened  war  unless  the  Presi 
dent  would  apologize,  which  he  positively  refused  to  do. 
Peaceful  feeling  was  restored  by  the   mediation  of  Great 
Britain ;   and  France  then  paid  the  amount  due.      Similar 
claims  were  also   promptly  paid  by  Portugal  and  other 
nations;    and    it   has    never    since  been    difficult   for   the 
government  of  the  United  States  to  obtain  respect  and 
attention  to  its  claims  against  other  nations.     The  United 
States  has  been  able  to  accomplish  the  settlement  of  such 
claims  by  arbitration ;   that  is,  by  umpires. 

465.  This  Period  of  eight  years  was,  as  will  have  been 
seen,    one  of  the  most  important   in   the  history  of  the 

1  Osceola  was  taken  prisoner  treacherously,  in  the  second  year  of  the 
war,  while  he  was  carrying  a  flag  of  truce.  He  was  then  imprisoned  in  a 
fort  until  his  death. 


1832]  POLITICAL   AFFAIRS  285 

United  States.  It  was  like  the  opening  of  spring,  when 
everything  leaps  into  growth.  From  that  time,  the 
people  of  the  United  States  have  been  growing  in  wealth, 
but  not  in  wealth  alone.  They  have  grown  in  educa 
tion,  in  morals,  and  in  all  those  things  that  make  a  people 
more  kindly  and  useful  to  the  world.  Their  public  school 
system,  their  prison  arrangements,  and  many  of  their 
other  experiments  have  been  imitated  by  other  nations. 


(2)  Political  Affair 


airs. 


466.  President  Jackson,  as   has   already  been  said,   was 
a  man  of  great  natural  powers  of  mind.      He  was  unedu 
cated   and  had   violent  passions;   but   he   was   absolutely 
honest  and  sincere,  and  did  not  know  what  fear  or  hesita 
tion  meant.      When  he  believed  that  anything  was  doing 
harm  to  the  people,  he  struck  at  it  as  if  it  were  an  enemy 
of  his  own,  regardless  of  the  feelings  of  his  opponents, 
who  were,  often,  just  as  confident  that  they  were  right  in 
their  views.      He  was  far  more  anxious  to  crush  opposition 
than    to   convince   and   convert  his    opponents.      It   thus 
came  about  that  the  political  history  of  these  eight  years 
was  one  of  almost  continuous  excitement;   and  Jackson's 
friends  and  enemies  accused  one  another   of  all  sorts  of 
misconduct.      The    four    principal    enemies    attacked    by 
Jackson  were  the  former  office-holders,  the  United  States 
Bank,  the  "American  System,"  and  the  nullificationists 
in  the  South. 

467.  Office-Holders  under  the  United  States — postmas 
ters,  clerks,  marshals,  and  others — had  not  hitherto  been 
expected   to  take    part  in    political    contests.      They  did 
their  work  for  the  United   States,  and  were  paid  for  it. 
Jackson    began  by  removing   all  the   office-holders  who 
were  not  his  supporters,  no  matter  how  faithful  they  had 


286  JACKSON  AND   YAN  BUREN  [l832 

been  as  public  servants.  After  him,  every  Administration 
did  the  same  thing,  until  in  1887  the  civil-service  law 
provided  for  tenure  of  office  during  good  behavior,  and 
removal  only  for  cause.  The  system  of  wholesale  removal 
of  political  opponents,  inaugurated  by  Jackson,  is  known 
as  the  "spoils  system,"  and  its  effects  upon  the  public 
service  have  been  exceedingly  bad. 

468.  The  Bank  of   the  United   States  (§  408)   was,   in 
Jackson's  opinion,  a  most  objectionable  institution.      He 
believed    that    the     government    revenues,    which    were 
deposited  in  the  Bank,  were  used  for  the  enrichment  of  its 
managers,  to  the  injury  of  the  people;  and  that  the  Bank 
tried  to  punish  or  reward  public  men  in  and  out  of  Con 
gress  for  opposing  or  helping  it.      He  therefore  declared 
war  on  the  Bank,  and  stated  his  opinion  of  it  very  plainly 
in  his  messages  to  Congress.      His  supporters  sided  with 
him,  and  the  country  was  soon  divided  by  the  question 
of  "  Bank  or  no  Bank." 

469.  A  New  Charter  for  the  Bank  was  applied  for  in 
1832,  although  the  existing  charter  did  not  expire  until 
1836.      The  bill  was  favorably  acted  upon  by  Congress, 
but  Jackson   vetoed  it,    and  the   friends  of  the    Bank   in 
Congress  were  not  numerous  enough  to  pass  the  bill  over 
the  veto.1      The  next  year,  he  ordered  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  to  cease  depositing  the  public  revenues  in 
the   Bank ;   and  now  the  friends  of  the   Bank  in  Congress 
were  not  numerous  enough  to  forbid  this  ' '  removal  of  the 
deposits."      Little  by  little,    Jackson   gained   a  majority 
in   Congress;   and  when  the  twenty  years  of  the  Bank's 

1  The  veto  power  of  the  President  is  his  power  to  object  to  bills  before 
they  become  laws  (§  281).  When  the  President  vetoes  a  bill,  a  vote  of  two 
thirds  in  its  favor  in  each  House  is  needed  to  make  it  a  law ;  and  this  is 
generally  not  easy  to  obtain.  Former  Presidents  had  not  used  the  veto 
power  often  :  Jackson  used  it  freely,  and  his  use  of  it  seemed  to  his  oppo 
nents  most  unfair  and  tyrannical. 


1832]  OPPOSITION    TO  JACKSON  287 

first  charter  came  to  an  end  (in  1836),  it  ceased  to  exist 
as  a  government  institution.  This  was  the  longest  and 
severest  struggle  of  Jackson's  presidency,  and  he  came 
out  of  it  in  triumph.  The  public  revenues  were  now 
deposited  in  various  State  banks,  selected  by  the  Secre 
tary  of  the  Treasury  (§  487). 

470,  The  American  System  of  high  tariffs  and  internal 
improvements   (§  434)   also  seemed  to  Jackson   not  only 
objectionable,  but  contrary  to  the   Constitution   as  well. 
He  believed  that  it  gave   Congress  too  much  money  to 
spend ;  that  it  made  Congress  extravagant  and  wasteful 
in   its  expenditures;   and  that  it  took   money  out  of  the 
pockets  of  the  people  for  the  benefit  of  a  single  class,  the 
manufacturers.      But,   instead  of  attacking   the  tariff,   he 
used  the  veto  power  against  a  number  of  bills  appropriat 
ing  money  for  internal  improvements,  and  they  generally 
failed  to  become  laws.     In  this  contest,  also,  the  President 
was  finally  successful  in  obtaining  the  support  of  a  majority 
of  the  people  and  of  Congress. 

471.  The  President's  Opponents  were  mainly  the  National 
Republicans  (§  438),  now  led  by  Clay  and  Webster.    They 
supported  the  Bank  and  the  American  System,  because 
they  believed  them  to  be  of  the  highest  advantage  to  the 
country.     They  supported  the  Bank  mainly  because  it  had 
branches  in  every  State,  and  its  notes  were  good  all  over 
the  country.      Without  the  Bank,  there  was  then,  except 
gold  and  silver,  no  money  which  could  be  used  in   every 
part  of  the  United  States.     They  supported  the  American 
System  as  profitable  to  the   country  (§  425).      They  felt 
that  they  were  as  honest  in  their  beliefs  as  Jackson  was 
in  his,  and  that  he  had  no   right  to  speak  of  them  and 
their  plans  in  the  terms  which  he  was  in  the  habit  of  using. 
It  is  very  probable  that  Jackson  had  warmer  friends  and 
bitterer  enemies  than  almost  any  other  President. 


288  JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN  [l832 

472.  An  Antimasonic  Party  had  grown  up  in  New  York 
and  the  neighboring-  States.      It  believed  that,  in    1826, 
the  society  of  Freemasons  had  carried  away  and  murdered 
a  citizen  of  New  York,  named  William  Morgan,  who  had 
revealed  its  secrets ;   and  it  opposed  the  election   of  any 
Freemason  to  office.      Both  Jackson  and  Clay  were  Free 
masons,  and  the  new  party  opposed  them  both.      It  dis 
appeared  after  the  election  of  1832. 

473.  The  Presidential  Election  in  1832  took  place  in  the 
midst  of  the  excitement  which  followed  Jackson's  veto  of 
the   new   charter   of  the   Bank    (§  469).      The   National 
Republicans,  who  supported  the  Bank,   nominated  Clay 
for  President,   and   John   Sergeant,   of  Pennsylvania,   for 
Vice-President.     The  Democrats,  who  opposed  the  Bank, 
nominated  Jackson  for  President,  and  Martin  Van  Buren 
(§  483)  for  Vice-President.      They  had  lost  confidence  in 
Calhoun,  the  late  Vice-President,  who  had  become  a  leader 
in  the  Nullification  movement  (§  476),  and  took  Van  Buren 
instead  of  him.      After  an   angry  contest,  the   Democrats 
were  successful,  and  Jackson  and  Van  Buren  were  elected.1 

474.  The  South  had  not  ceased  its  opposition  to  a  high 
tariff  (§  436).      When   a  new  protective  tariff,  known   as 
the   "tariff  of  abominations, "  from   its  high  duties,  was 
adopted  (in  1832),  this  feeling  grew  stronger  than  ever. 
It  was  strongest  in  South  Carolina,  where  Calhoun  was  an 
honored  and  trusted  leader.      He  argued  that  the  Consti 
tution  gave  Congress  no  power  to  enact  a  protective  tariff; 
that  such  a  tariff  was  contrary  to   State  rights ;   and  that 
each  State  ought  to  protect  its  citizens  from  it. 

475.  State  Sovereignty. — It  has  been  finally  settled  that 
the   Union   rests   on   the    support   of  the   whole   nation, 

1  Out  of  288  electoral  votes,  the  Democratic  candidates  received  219,  the 
National  Republicans  49,  and  the  Antimasonic  candidates  7.  South 
Carolina's  n  votes  were  cast  for  candidates  of  her  own. 


1832]  NULLIFICATION  289 

divided  into  States  out  of  necessity ;  that  it  is  right,  just, 
and  wise  to  respect  the  equal  rights  of  the  States,  as 
most  excellent  instruments  of  good  government;  but  that 
the  national  government  in  its  allotted  sphere  has  the 
right  to  compel  all  persons  to  obey  its  laws,  in  spite  of 
State  laws,  and  to  prevent  any  State  from  leaving  the 
Union.  This  was  the  doctrine  laid  down  by  Webster,  in 
1830,  in  a  great  debate  with  Senator  Hayne,  of  South 
Carolina.  But  it  was  the  general  belief  in  the  South  that 
the  Union  rested  entirely  on  the  support  of  the  States; 
that  each  State  was  altogether  its  own  master;  and  that 
each  State  stayed  in  the  Union  only  because  it  chose  to 
do  so.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  State  Sovereignty,  or, 
as  it  was  often  called,  improperly,  State  Rights.  Of 
course,  it  followed  from  the  doctrine  of  State  sovereignty 
that,  if  any  State  believed  its  people  to  be  unbearably 
wronged  by  the  Union,  it  had  the  right  to  secede,  or 
withdraw,  from  the  Union.  This  was  the  doctrine  of 
Secession.  It  was  upheld  by  most  men  in  the  South, 
even  by  those  Avho  had  not  the  slightest  desire  to  put  it 
in  force.  They  would  argue,  work,  and  vote  against 
secession ;  but,  if  their  State  should  vote  to  secede,  they 
would  have  admitted  the  right  to  do  so,  and  would  have 
felt  bound  to  "follow  their  State  "  (§  615). 

476.  Nullification. — Calhoun,  like  most  other  South 
erners,  believed  in  State  sovereignty  and  the  right  of 
secession,  but  loved  the  Union,  and  did  not  wish  to  have 
any  secession.  To  prevent  it,  he  proposed  that  his  State, 
still  remaining  in  the  Union,  should  declare  that  it  had 
never  given  the  Federal  Government  the  power  to  pass 
any  protective-tariff  law,  should  declare  the  law  null 
(without  force)  in  South  Carolina,  and  should  forbid  her 
citizens  to  obey  it  or  pay  the  duties.  This  was  called 
Nullification.  The  proposition  was  adopted  by  South 


?9°  JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN  [l833 

Carolina,  but  the  other  southern  States  took  no  part  in  it. 
Late  in  1832,  South  Carolina  called  a  convention  which 
declared  the  tariff  law  of  1832  null  and  void,  forbade  the 
collection  of  the  duties  at  Charleston  or  any  other  port  in 
the  State,  and  threatened  to  secede  if  the  law  was  enforced. 
It  also  took  steps  to  prepare  an  army  for  resistance. 

477.  Jackson's  Proclamation. — The  President  disliked  the 
tariff  law  almost  as  much  as  Calhoun  did,  and  he  was  then 
trying  to  have  it  repealed.      But  he  had  sworn  to  enforce 
the  laws  of  the  country,  and  he  had  no  notion  of  yielding 
to  the  nullifkationists.      He  sent  a  naval  force  to  occupy 
Charleston  harbor  and  collect  the  duties  from  any  vessels 
entering    it.      He    issued    a    proclamation,    warning    the 
people  of  South  Carolina  that  he  intended  to  enforce  the 
law  at  all   hazards,    and   that   blood   would   flow  if  they 
should   resist   it.      All    men    knew    that    Jackson    meant 
exactly  what  he  said,  and   the  warning  was  heeded.      It 
was  agreed  in  South  Carolina  to  "suspend  "  nullification 
until  after  the  adjournment  of  Congress. 

478.  The  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833 — Congress  had  no 
desire  to  push   South  Carolina  to  extremes,  and  many  of 
its  members  who  disliked  protection  made  the  nullification 
difficulty  an   excuse  to  vote  against  the  tariff.      A  new 
tariff    act,    the    ' k  Compromise    Tariff, ' '    was     passed    in 
1833,    under   which    the    duties   were   to    be    diminished 
every  year  until  1842.      South  Carolina  claimed  this  as  a 
victory,    and    repealed    her    ordinance     of    nullification. 
This  was  the  last  time  that  nullification  was  attempted  by 
any  State;  the  next  effort  was  a  secession  by  a  number  of 
States  in  1861  (§  610). 

479.  The  Whig  Party  of  England  had  been  distinguished, 
among    other    things,    for    its    opposition    to     the    king. 
About  1833  the  name  of  Whigs  was  adopted  by  Jackson's 
opponents,    because  they  considered  him  a  tyrant,    who 


1836]  JACKSON'S    WORK  291 

used  the  favor  of  the  people  to  make  himself  in  tact  a 
king,  without  any  regard  to  Congress  or  the  laws.  The 
name  was  taken  by  the  supporters  of  the  Bank  and  the 
American  System,  and  by  the  southern  nullifiers,  who 
felt  Jackson's  proceedings  as  an  attack  on  themselves. 

480.  The  Presidential  Election  in    1836   resulted   in  an 
easy  victory  for  the   Democrats.      They  nominated   Van 
Buren  (§  483)  for  President,  and  Richard  M.  Johnson,  of 
Kentucky,  for  Vice-President.      The  Whigs  were  in  great 
confusion,    and    made    no    nominations.      Clay  was    their 
real  leader ;   but  many  of  them  thought  Harrison  a  better 
candidate ;  others  preferred  Webster ;  and  southern  Whigs 
preferred   Hugh  L.  White,  of  Tennessee,  or  other  candi 
dates.1 

481.  The  Successes  of  the  President  were  thus  complete. 
He  had  won   all  his  political  battles.      He  had  kept  his 
oath  that,   "by  the  Eternal,"  he  would  put  down  nullifi 
cation  and  maintain  the  Union.      He  had  driven  Calhoun 
and   his  friends  out  of  the   Democratic   party.      He  had 
driven  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  almost  out  of  exist 
ence.     He  had  succeeded  in  making  Van  Buren,  who  had 
supported   him   in  all   his  struggles,   President.      He  had 
succeeded  in  making  Taney,  who  had   supported  him  in 
his  struggle  with  the  Bank,  Chief  Justice.      At  the  end 
of  his  second  term,  having  beaten   all  his   enemies,  and 
rewarded  all  his  friends,  Jackson  retired  from  public  life 
to  his  home  in  Tennessee. 

482.  Jackson's  Influence. — There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
much  of  what  Jackson  did  had  good  effects ;  that  it  has 
helped  to  make  it  easier  for  each  of  us  to  say  just  what 
he    thinks,    without   being    exposed    to    influences    which 

1  Out  of  the  294  electoral  votes.  Van  Buren  received  170,  Harrison  73 > 
White  26,  Webster  14,  and  W.  P.  Mangum  1 1.  No  one  received  a  majority 
of  votes  for  Vice-President,  and  Johnson  was  chosen  by  the  Senate. 


292  JACKSON  AND    YAN  BUREN  [1837 

might  make  such  a  thing-  unpleasant  or  dangerous ;  and 
that  he  thus  helped  to  spread  democracy.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  did  much  that  had  bad  effects,  which  are  still 
felt.  In  particular,  he  introduced  the  system  of  removing 
office-holders  who  were  not  active  supporters  of  the  Presi 
dent.  Office-holders  were  thus  compelled  not  only  to  do 
the  public  work  for  which  the  country  paid  them,  but  to 
work  for  their  party  besides.  They  were  always  at  work 
to  have  this  or  that  man  nominated  for  office,  while  the 
mass  of  the  people  were  busy  with  their  daily  occupations ; 
and  thus  many  things  have  been  done  apparently  by  the 
voice  of  the  people,  when  they  have  really  been  contrived 
and  put  through  by  a  small  and  active  number  of  office 
holders.  Nothing  could  be  more  opposed  to  democracy 
than  this ;  and  few  things  have  done  more  harm. 

(II)  VAN  BUREN'S  ADMINISTRATION:    1837-41 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN,  N.  Y.,  President.        R.  M.  JOHNSON,  Ky.,  Vice-President. 

483. *  Van  Buren — Martin  Van  Buren  had  long  been 
prominent  in  New  York  politics,  and  had  held  in  succes 
sion  the  offices  of  United  States  senator,  governor  of  his 
State,  and  Secretary  of  State  under  Jackson.  He  was  a 
Democrat,  and  a  shrewd  politician.  He  regarded  himself 
as  the  legitimate  successor  of  Jackson,  and  professed  his 
agreement  with  Jackson  in  policy  and  ideas ;  but  people 
came  to  look  upon  him  as  lacking  in  independence,  while 
his  administration  suffered  from  having  to  bear  the  con 
sequences  of  some  of  Jackson's  acts. 

4840  Wildcat  Banks. — During  Jackson's  struggle  with 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  many  new  banks  had  been 
formed  in  various  States,  generally  with  little  or  no  capital 
to  pay  the  notes  which  they  issued.  They  bought  large 
quantities  of  cheaply  printed  bills.  As  these  bills  had 
cost  them  very  little,  they  could  afford  to  offer  a  higher 


i836] 


THE  SPECIE   CIRCULAR 


293 


price  in  paper  money  for  lands  in  distant  States  and 
Territories  than  others 
could  afford  to  offer  in 
gold  and  silver.  Having 
bought  the  lands  for  this 
depreciated  money,  the 
"  wildcat"  bankers  sold 
them  for  good  money, 
hoping  that  their  own 
bills  would  not  soon 
find  their  way  back  for 
payment.  If  they  were 
disappointed  in  this 
hope,  the  bank  failed, 
and  the  managers  start 
ed  a  new  one.  Very 
many  of  these  wildcat 
bank-notes  were  paid 
to  government  f  agents 

in  the  West  for  the  public   lands  which  the 
wished  to  sell  at  a  low  price  to  settlers.1 

485.  The  Specie  Circular  was  issued  by  the  government 
in  1836.  It  directed  government  agents  to  take  only 
gold  and  silver  in  payment  for  lands.  Wildcat  bank 
notes  were  now  of  no  use  in  the  West,  and  began  to  be 
sent  back  for  payment.  The  banks  had  not  the  money 
with  w7hich  to  pay  them.  When  the  more  honest  of  the 
bankers  began  to  try  to  raise  money  by  offering  what 
property  they  had  at  lower  prices,  they  threw  business 

1  Such  banks  were  a  deliberate  fraud  upon  the  people,  on  whom  all  the 
losses  fell.  They  cannot  exist  at  present,  because  of  the  national  banking 
law  (§  670).  A  national  bank  cannot  issue  notes  until  it  has  deposited  bonds 
at  Washington  with  which  to  pay  them,  if  necessary  ;  and  all  other  banks 
that  chose  to  issue  bills  would  be  taxed,  by  law,  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
drive  them  out  of  existence. 


MARTIN  VAN  BUREN. 


2 94  JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN  [^37 

into  confusion.  Prices  (in  paper  money)  had  been  high. 
As  prices  fell,  every  one  became  frightened,  and  anxious 
to  sell  before  prices  should  fall  quite  to  the  bottom.  Thus 
every  one  wanted  to  sell,  and  nobody  cared  to  buy.  Busi 
ness  men  everywhere  became  continually  more  alarmed 
as  they  found  themselves  unable  to  pay  their  debts  to 
others,  or  to  get  payment  of  what  others  owed  them. 
Stich  a  state  of  affairs  brings  on  what  is  called  a  panic,  and 
is  a  terrible  experience  for  a  country  in  which  it  occurs. 

486.  The  Panic  of  1837  began  just  after  Van   Buren's 
inauguration,    and    lasted    for    more    than    a   year.      The 
banks  suspended  specie  payments;   that  is,  they  declared 
that  they  had   not  the  gold  or  silver  to  pay  their  notes. 
Men  who  had  been  rich  were  made  poor  in  a  day ;   and  a 
pile  of  bank-notes  became  almost  as  worthless  as  so  much 
waste   paper.      There   was  hardly  any  work  to   be   had  ; 
and  men  who  had   not  before  been   rich  suffered  distress, 
and  sometimes   starvation.      During  the  first  two  months 
of  the  panic,  the  business  failures  in  New  York  City  alone 
amounted  to  more  than  $100,000,000. 

487.  Democratic   Policy. — The     Federal    Government, 
which  had  lately  had  so  much  money  that  it  was  com 
pelled  to  divide  a  part  of  it  among  the   States  (§  453), 
could   now  get  no  money  at  all.      All  its  revenues  had 
been   deposited   in   the    State   banks    (§  469) ;    and   these 
banks   were   unable   to   pay  them  over.      President   Van 
Buren  called  a  special  session  of  Congress.      It  passed  a 
law  allowing  the  Treasury  to  issue  its  own   notes  to  the 
amount  of  $10,000,000,  and  this  gave  the   government 
some  relief.      The  Whigs  urged  the   establishment  of  a 
new  United  States  Bank,  as  the   best  means  of  avoiding 
any  such  difficulties  for  the  future;    but  Van   Buren  and 
his  party  resisted  the  demand   steadily,  and  proposed  an 
entirely  new  plan,  called  the  independent  treasury  system. 


1840]  THE  INDEPENDENT   TREASURY  295 

488.  The  Independent  Treasury  System  provided  that  the 
public  revenues  should  no  longer  be  deposited  in   private 
banks,  but  in  certain  branches  of  the  Treasury  Department 
in  a  few  leading  cities.      The   collecting  officers  were  to 
give  bonds ;   that  is,  legal  promises  by  responsible  men  to 
make   good   any  loss   of  money   by  these   officials.      For 
about  three  years,  it  was  not  possible  to  get  a  majority  of 
both  Houses  of  Congress  to  make  this  a  law.      In  1840, 
however,  it  became  a  law,  and   the  government  was  cut 
loose  from  banks.1 

489.  Repudiation. — Many  of  the  States  had  borrowed 
money  for  internal  improvements  (§  453);   and  they  now 
found    it   difficult    to    pay    their    debts.      Some    of   them 
refused  to  pay  altogether ;  and,  as  States   cannot  be  sued 
by  private  persons,  this  "repudiation  "  of  their  debts  was 
successful.     Some  of  the  repudiating  States  afterward  paid 
their  debts,  when  they  became  more  prosperous. 

490.  The  Population  of  the  country  in  1840  was  17,069,- 
453,    an   increase   of  more   than   4,000,000   in  ten   years 
(§  452).      In   spite   of  the   panic,    there  were   many   evi 
dences  of  real  growth  and  prosperity  among  the  people. 
After  the  first  effects  of  the  panic   passed  over,  business 
settled  down  to  firmer    foundations.      Railroad    building 
had   gone    on  steadily,    and  in    1841    there  were    nearly 
4,000  miles  in  operation. 

491.  Inventions. — Goodyear,  in  1839,  patented  his  plan 
of  "vulcanizing"    india-rubber,    by  which   it  was   made 
hard  enough  to  resist  wear  and  tear,  and  to  be  moulded 
into   the   innumerable  articles   for  which   it  is   now  used. 
In  the  same  year,  W.  F.  Harnden  began  carrying  parcels 
between  Boston  and  New  York.      Out  of  this  little  enter- 

1  The  Independent  Treasury  law  was  repealed  by  the  Whigs  in  1841 
(§  501),  re-established  by  the  Democrats  in  1846  (§  521),  and  is  still,  in  its 
main  features,  the  financial  method  followed  by  the  United  States. 


296  JACKSON   AND    VAN  BUREN  [1840 

prise  have  since  grown  the  great  express  companies  which 
now  reach  all  parts  of  the  country. 

492.  The  Abolitionists   (§  462)  were  preaching  against 
negro  slavery  more  zealously  than  ever.      They  were  not 
allowed  to   enter   the   slave  States,  but  their  books   and 
newspapers    went    there    and    excited    the    most   intense 
anger.      Southern  governors  and  legislatures  tried  to  get 
possession    of  leading    Abolitionists,    in   order   to  punish 
them ;  and   southern  speakers  and  newspapers  began  to 
declare  plainly  that  their  section  would  not  remain   long 
in   a  Union   in   which   men  were   allowed   to  stir  up  the 
negroes  to  rebellion   (§  603).      In  the   North,  people  as 
yet  cared  very  little  about  slavery,  considering  it  a  matter 
for  which   the    southern    States    alone   were   responsible. 
But   they  felt  angry  that  these   few  Abolitionists  should 
make  strife  between   North  and   South,  and  disliked   the 
Abolitionists  as  much  as  the  Southerners  did. 

493.  Riots  were  common  for  a  time  in  the  North,  when 
ever    an    Abolitionist     meeting    was     announced.       The 
Abolitionist  speakers   were   mobbed,    pelted  with   stones 
and   eggs,  and   chased   away.      In  one   of  these   riots,  at 
Alton,  in  Illinois,  one  of  the  leading  Abolitionists,  named 
Lovejoy,  was  killed.      In  another,  in  Philadelphia,  a  large 
hall,  called  Pennsylvania  Hall,  built  by  the  Abolitionists, 
was  destroyed.      But,  toward  the  end  of  this   period,  the 
Abolitionists     became    more     numerous,    and    the     riots 
became  less    common.      Besides,    Congress   had    done  a 
very  foolish  thing,  which  roused  sympathy  for  the  Aboli 
tionists  in  the  North. 

494.  The  Right  of   Petition  is   looked  upon  as  a  very- 
sacred  thing.      Congress  is  not  bound  to  grant  any  petition 
that  may  be  offered  to  it ;   but  every  man  feels  that  Con 
gress  is  bound  to  receive  any  respectful  petition  that  is 
presented,    from    any   person,    or   on  any  subject.      The 


1840]  THE  MORMONS  297 

Abolitionists  had  been  sending  to  Congress  many  petitions 
against  slavery.  These  petitions  were  very  disagreeable 
to  southern  members,  and  Congress  at  last  decided  not 
to  receive  any  more  of  them.  This  decision  was  disliked 
by  the  people  of  the  North,  even  by  those  who  did  not 
favor  the  Abolitionists. "  Great  numbers  of  petitions  to 
change  the  decision  poured  in  upon  Congress;  and,  after 
a  struggle  of  four  years,  Congress  decided  to  receive  the 
petitions  again,  and  the  "  gag-rule,"  as  it  was  called, 
disappeared. 

495.  The  Mormons  began  to  be  a  source  of  trouble  about 
this  time.      They  were  followers  of  a  man  named  Joseph 
Smith,  who  had  given  them  what  he  called  a  new  Bible. 
They    regarded    him    as    a    prophet,    and    Christians    as 
"Gentiles,"  or  heathen.      At  first,  they  gathered  into  a 
settlement  near  Independence,  in  western  Missouri,  where 
they  made  themselves  unpleasant  to  their  neighbors,  and 
were    driven     away    by    mobs.       They    then    settled    at 
Nauvoo,  in   Illinois,  near  Burlington,  Iowa.      Here  they 
became    still    more    annoying    to     their    neighbors,    and 
began  to  teach  that  a  man  may  have  any  number  of  wives 
at  the  same  time.      In    1 844,  Smith  was  shot  by  a  mob, 
and   the   Mormons   moved   away   from    Nauvoo   to   Utah 

(§  586). 

496.  Canada  was  the  scene  of  a  rebellion  against  the 
British  Government  in  1837.      Many  persons  in  the  State 
of  New  York  were  inclined  to  help  the  Canadian  Patriots, 
as  they  were  called,  and  endeavored  to  cross  into  Canada, 
near   Niagara    Falls,    for    that    purpose.      President   Van 
Buren  took  care  that  all  such  attempts  should  be  stopped ; 
and    nothing   was   done    by  the    United   States  of  which 
Great  Britain  could  rightfully  complain. 

497.  The  Boundary  of  Maine,  in  its  eastern  and  northern 
portions,  had  never  been  exactly  settled.      There  was  a 


298  JACKSON  AND    J/AN   BUREN  [1840 

strip  of  land  which  was  claimed  by  Maine  and  by  New 
Brunswick;  and  about  this  time  the  two  parties  became 
so  angry  that  affairs  looked  warlike.  Forts  were  built, 
and  troops  sent  to  the  disputed  territory.  General  Scott 
was  sent  to  the  spot  by  the  President;  and  he  managed 
to  keep  the  peace  until  the  matter  was  settled  by  treaty 
in  1842  (§  503). 

498.  The  Election  of  1840. — Political  affairs  in  1840  took 
an  unusual  turn.      The  panic  of  1837  had  passed  by,  but 
many  of  its  effects  remained ;   and  a  smaller  panic  took 
place  just  before  the  election   of  I  840.      In   such  times  of 
business  trouble,  many  persons  are  likely  to  vote  against 
the    party  in   power;    and    the    Whigs    promised    general 
prosperity  if  their   candidates  were   elected.      The  Presi 
dential   election   in    1 840   was   a    singular   contest.      The 
Democrats  renominated  Van   Buren   and  Johnson.      The 
Whigs  nominated   Harrison  and  Tyler  (§  500).      Ameri 
cans  are  apt  to  like  a  candidate  who  has  been  poor  and 
has  worked  his  way  to  prominence  by  honesty  and  trust 
worthiness  ;   and   the  Whigs   managed   to   excite   a  great 
popular  enthusiasm  for  Harrison.      They  built  large  log- 
cabins,  such  as  he  had  lived  in,  and  gathered  in  them  to 
make   speeches,  drink   hard   cider   like   Western   settlers, 
and  sing  songs  about  Tippecanoe  (§  350).      Their  public 
meetings  were  measured  by  the  acre,  and  their  processions 
by  the  mile.      The   Democrats  could  excite  no  such  feel 
ing    about   Van    Buren,   and    Harrison    and    Tyler   were 
elected.      The  Abolitionists,  or  Liberty  party,  also  nomi 
nated   candidates,  but  only  a  very  few  persons  voted  for 
them.1 

499,  The  Leading  Events  of  the  administrations  of  Jack 
son  and  Van  Buren  were  as  follows : 

1  Out  of  294  electoral  votes,  Harrison  and  Tyler  received  234,  and  the 
Democratic  candidates  60. 


LEADING   EVENTS,    1829-1840  299 

1829-33  :  Jackson's  First  Term §  44  i 

1830:  General  removal  of  office-holders .  .  .  .  467 

1831  :  Abolition  of  slavery  proposed 462 

1832  :  Black  Hawk  War 463 

Bank  charter  bill  vetoed 469 

New  protective  tariff  act  passed., 474 

Nullification..  .  .  ^ 476 

1833  :  Compromise  Tariff 478 

1833-37  :  Jackson's  Second  Term 473 

1833:  Removal  of  the  deposits 469 

First  American  locomotive. 443 

1834  :  McCormick's  reaping-machine 448 

1835  :  Great  fire  in  New  York  City 450 

Seminole  War  begins 463 

1836:  Anthracite  coal  used  in  steamboats..  '.  446 

Screw  propeller  invented 447 

Arkansas  admitted 454 

1837:  Michigan  admitted 454 

1837-41  :  Van  Buren's  Term : 483 

1837 :  The  panic  begins.  .  .  : 486 

The  Alton  riot ....  493 

The  Patriot  rebellion  in  Canada 496 

1838:  Repudiation  of  State  debts 489 

The  Philadelphia  riot 493 

Abolition  petitions  refused  by  Congress  494 

1839:  Mormons  settle  at  Nauvoo 495 

Boundary  dispute  in  Maine 497 

1840:  Independent  Treasury  law  passed.  •  •  •  488 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Was  Jackson  a  typical  Democrat  ? 

2.  The  bank  controversy. 

3.  The  life  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison. 

4.  The  northeast  boundary  dispute. 

5.  Appointments  and  removals  under  Jackson. 

6.  The  Webster-Hayne  debate. 

7.  Why  did  South  Carolina  lead  in  advocacy  of  nullification  ? 

8.  John  Quincy  Adams  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  extracts  from 

the  principal  documents  relating  to  the  bank  controversy  (Nos. 


JACKSON  AND   VAN  BUREN 


46,  50-52,  54,  57-62,  64,  65-68),  the  Webster-Hayne  debate 
(Nos.  47-49),  and  nullification  (Nos.  53,  55,  56),  and  the 
constitution  of  the  American  Antislavery  Society  (No.  63). 
The  platforms  of  the  various  political  parties  are  given  in  Stan- 
wood's  History  of  the  Presidency.  The  Register  of  Debates  ends 
with  1837;  it  is  followed  by  the  Congressional  Globe,  which 
begins,  however,  with  1833. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — As  has  already  been  said,  the  Jack- 
sonian  period  still  lacks  its  historian.  An  understanding  of  it 
must  be  sought,  outside  of  the  general  histories,  in  the 
biographies  and  writings  of  leading  public  men,  in  the  proceed 
ings  of  Congress,  and  in  newspapers.  The  principal  secondary 
authorities  continue  to  be  the  same  as  those  cited  in  the  note 
to  Chapter  XIV.  Peck's  From  Jackson  to  Polk  is  a  useful 
general  account.  There  are  lives  of  Jackson  by  Parton  and 
Sumner,  and  of  Van  Buren  by  Shepard.  On  financial  ques 
tions  see,  in  addition  to  the  general  works,  Taussig's  Tariff 
History,  Bolles's  Financial  History  of  the  United  States,  Bishop's 
History  of  American  Manufactures,  Bourne's  Surplus  Revenue 
of  1837,  and  Sumner' s  History  of  American  Currency.  Hous 
ton's  Critical  Study  of  Nullification  in  South  Carolina  is  the  best 
work  in  that  field.  Of  books  of  reminiscence,  Sargent's  Public 
Men  and  Events,  Amos  Kendall's  Autobiography,  and  Ben: 
Perley  Poore's  Perleys  Reminiscences  are  especially  useful.  The 
best  account  of  the  abolition  movement  is  in  Garrisons'  William 
Lloyd  Garrison.  Cooley's  Michigan  is  the  best  short  history  of 
that  State. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE.— G.  C.  Eggleston's  Red  Eagle  ; 
H.  B.  Stowe's  fired;  G.  P.  R.  James's  Old  Dominion  ;  J.  P. 
Kennedy's  Quodlibet ;  Edward  Eggleston's  Hoosier  Schoolmaster 
and  Circuit  Rider. 


CHAPTER    XVI 
TEXAS    AND   THE   MEXICAN   WAR 

1841-1849 
(I)  HARRISON'S  AND  TYLER'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:    1841-5 

WM.  H.  HARRISON,  O .,  President       JOHN  TYLER,  Va.,  Vice- President  and  President. 

500.  President  Harrison  called  a  special  session  of  Con 
gress    to    consider  the  financial    needs    of  the    country. 
Before  it  could  meet,  Harrison  died   suddenly,  April  4, 
1841,  only  a  little  more  than  a  month  after  his  inaugura 
tion.       Vice-President    Tyler    thus    became     President. 
Tyler  had  been  a  Whig  only  because  of  his  opposition  to 
Jackson   (§471);  and   he  was   known  to   be   opposed   to 
most  of  the  measures  which  the  Whigs   desired.      They 
had  nominated  him  to  get  votes  in  the  South,  and  now 
found    themselves    confronted    by  the  troublesome   veto 
power  of  the  new  President  (§  469). 

501.  The  Whigs   and  the  President. — Congress  met  in 
May,  1841.      The  Whigs  had  in  each  House  a  majority 
large  enough  to  pass  laws,  but  not  large  enough  to  defeat 
the  veto.      They  began  by  repealing  the  Sub-Treasury 
act  (§  488),  and  Tyler  allowed  the  repeal  to  become  law. 
They  then  passed  two  acts  to  establish  a  National  Bank, 
but  Tyler  vetoed  them  both.      No  more  was  done  at  this 
session  in  this  matter,  and  no  serious  attempt  has  ever 
since  been  made  to  establish  a  single  great  National  Bank, 
though  a  national  banking  system  has   been   established 

301 


302 


TEXAS  AND    THE   MEXICAN   WAR 


[1841 


(§  484,  note).  The  Whigs  were  exceedingly  indignant 
at  the  conduct  of  the  President,  but  could  do  nothing. 
The  members  of  the  Cabinet  resigned,  except  Webster, 
who  was  negotiating  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  (§  502). 


WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON. 


JOHN*  TYLER. 


For  the  first  two  years  of  this  administration,  the  Whig 
majority  in  Congress  did  little  more  than  quarrel  with 
Tyler.  Then  the  Democrats  obtained  a  majority  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  Congress  and  the  President 
agreed  better.  A  new  tariff  was  adopted  in  1842,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  compromise  tariff  of  1 833,  which  had  now 
come  to  an  end  (§  478).  It  was  so  arranged  as  to  pro 
tect  American  manufactures,  and  therefore  the  South  was 
opposed  to  it;  but  there  was  no  attempt  to  resist  or 
nullify  it. 


1842]  THE   OREGON  COUNTRY  3°3 

502.  Extradition  of  criminals  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  was  secured  by  a  treaty  which  was  made 
in  1842.      Each  country  agreed  to  arrest  and  send  back 
criminals  who  should  escape  to  it  from  the  other  country. 
It  was  thus  no  longer  possible  for  a  criminal  to  find  safety 
by  simply  crossing  the   Atlantic.      Similar  treaties    have 
since  been  made  with  most  other  countries,  so  that  there 
is  now  hardly  a  corner  of  the  civilized  world  in  which  a 
criminal  can  find  safe  refuge. 

503.  The  Northern  Boundary,  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  from  Maine  to  the   Rocky  Mountains,  was 
settled  by  the  same  treaty.     This  put  an  end  to  the  Maine 
difficulty    (§  497).      West   of  the    Rocky   Mountains,    in 
what  was  then  called  the  Oregon  Country,  the  boundary 
could  not  be  agreed  upon,  and  both  countries  had  some 
years  before  arranged  to  occcupy  the  country  together  until 
it  should  be  necessary  to  decide  the  matter.      The  treaty 
continued  this  arrangement  for  a  time.     American  emigra 
tion  to  Oregon  had  already  begun ;   and  Fremont,  of  the 
regular  army,    was  beginning  explorations  to  find  passes 
through  the  Rocky  Mountains  (§  529). 

504.  The   Oregon   Country   covered   what   are   now  the 
States    of    Idaho,    Washington,    and    Oregon.       It    was 
claimed  by  the  United  States,  partly  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  (§  334),  though 
this  was  exceedingly  doubtful,  and  partly  because  it  had 
been  first  explored  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  (§  335).      Great 
Britain  denied  both  of  these  claims,  but  could  not  give  any 
very  conclusive  reasons  for  her  own  claim  to  the  country. 
The  truth  seems  to  have  been  that  the  United  States  had 
very  little  claim  to  Oregon,  and  Great  Britain  none  at  all. 
After  all,  the  best  reason  why  the  United  States  should 
have  the  country  was  that  the  American  settlements  there 
were   increasing    rapidly,    while   there    were    hardly   any 


304  TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN    W 'AR  [1844 

English  settlements,    and    little   prospect  of  any.       The 
question  was  not  settled,  however,  until  1846  (§  523). 

505.  Texas  was  not  yet  a  part  of  the  United  States. 
The  United  States  had  at  first  claimed  it  as  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase  (§  334,  note) ;  but  the  claim  had  been 
given  up,  in   1819,  in  exchange  for  Florida   (§  414),  and 
Texas    remained    a    part    of   Mexico.       Soon    American 
settlers  began  to  enter  Texas;  and,  as  most  of  these  were 
from    Southern    States,    they  brought   their   negro   slaves 
with  them.     The  new  settlers  had  little  liking  for  Mexico, 
and  did  not  obey  when  the  Mexican  Government  forbade 
slavery  within  its  limits. 

506.  Mexico  had  rebelled  against  Spain,   and   become 
independent.      But  it  had  a  most  disorderly  government, 
in  which  generals  of  the  army  were  in  the  habit  of  seizing 
supreme   power   and    forcing  the    people    to   obey  them; 
while  the   American  settlers  were   not   in    the    habit    of 
obeying  any  one  whom  they  had  not  helped  to  elect.     In 
1835,  they  openly  rebelled,  and  drove  the  Mexican  troops 
out  of  Texas.      The  next  year,  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican 
ruler,  invaded  Texas  in  a  most  cruel   manner,  murdering 
prisoners,    sick,    and    wounded ;    but    the    Texans,    under 
General  Sam  Houston,  met  him  with  far  fewer  men  at  San 
Jacinto,  near  Houston,  and  defeated  him.      Mexico  made 
no  further  attempt  to  conquer  Texas,  which  remained  an 
independent  republic. 

507.  The  Annexation  of  Texas  was  very  much   desired, 
especially  by  the  South ;   and  plans  to  bring  Texas  into 
the  Union  were  being  constantly  discussed.      They  were 
not  successful  at  first,  for  the  annexation  was  not  desired 
by  the   Whigs  in   the   South,    or  by  either  party  in   the 
North,  and  only  Southern   Democrats  were  in  favor  of  it. 
Tyler  made  a  treaty  of  annexation  with  Texas  in  I  844; 
but  the  Senate  refused  to  ratify  it  (§  281),  and  it  failed. 


1845]  SLAyE-STATE  REPRESENTATION  305 

The  annexation  was  not  completed  until  after  the  Presi 
dential    election   at  the   close   of   Tyler's  term  of  office 

(§  516). 

508.  Slave-State  Representation  was  the  main  reason 
for  the  desire  of  the  Southern  Democrats  to  annex  Texas, 
in  order  to  give  the  South  an  equal  share  in  the  Senate. 
Laws  are  made  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa 
tives  together.  The  South  was  always  the  weaker  party 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  for  its  population  was 
smaller  than  that  of  the  North.  But  each  State  is  equally 
represented  in  the  Senate;  and,  so  far,  a  new  slave  State 
had  always  been  admitted  to  balance  a  new  free  State. 
In  1845,  when  Florida  was  admitted,  there  were  27  States 
in  the  Union,  13  free  States  and  14  slave  States.  All  the 
southern  territory  was  then  used  up,  and  no  more  slave 
States  could  be  formed;  while  the  North  had  still -a  vast 
amount  of  western  territory,  from  which  new  free  States 
could  be  formed.  It  was  thus  certain  that  the  South 
would  soon  be  in  a  minority  in  both  Houses  of  Congress, 
so  that  laws  might  be  passed  which  would  injure  the 
system  of  slavery.  Texas  was  so  vast  a  territory  that  it 
was  hoped  that  it  might  be  cut  up  into  four  or  five  slave 
States. 

509.*  Florida. — The  territory  of  Florida,  purchased  from 
Spain  in  1819,  was  in  1845  admitted  as  a  State,  with  laws 
permitting  negro  slavery. 

510.  The  Electro-Magnetic  Telegraph  came  into  practical 
use  in  1844.  There  had  been  so-called  "telegraphs" 
for  many  years  before;  but  these  were  only  long  lines 
of  signal-posts,  at  some  distance  from  one  another,  which 
sent  messages  altogether  by  sight,  one  letter  at  a  time. 
In  1837,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  took  out  his  first  patent 
for  applying  electricity  as  a  force  for  telegraphing  through 
wires.  Six  years  afterward,  Congress  appropriated  money 


306 


TEXAS   AND    THE   MEXICAN   WAR 


[1844 


to  try  the  invention.      In  the  following  year,    1844,   the 

first  line  was  constructed 
from  Baltimore  to 
Washington,  and  proved 
to  be  a  success.  Tele 
graph  companies  were 
at  once  formed,  and 
ne\V  lines  were  con 
structed. 

511.  The  Mineral  Re 
sources  of  the  United 
States  were  not  yet 
much  developed.  Salt 
was  produced  near 
Syracuse,  in  New  York. 
Pennsylvania  and 
northern  New  Jersey 
had  long  produced  iron, 

SAMUEL  F.  B.  MORSE.  and    the     Pennsylvania 

beds  of  anthracite  coal  were  coming  into  knowledge  and 
use  (§  446).  There  were  lead-mines  in  northern  Illinois 
and  eastern  Iowa ;  and  a  few  small  copper-mines  had  been 
worked  without  much  success  in  Connecticut  and  New 
Jersey.  Gold  was  found  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and 
Georgia;  but  the  total  amount  produced  by  these  mines 
in  all  the  years  up  to  1846  was  not  equal  to  a  half-year's 
product  afterward  from  the  California  mines.  The  won 
derful  mineral  resources  of  Missouri  and  Tennessee  were 
hardly  known.  No  one  knew  that  there  was  a  wealth  of 
petroleum  under  the  surface  of  Pennsylvania  and  other 
States.  California,  New  Mexico,  and  Nevada  still  be 
longed  to  Mexico;  and  there  was  no  knowledge  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  this  region,  or  of  those  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


1844]  THE  DORR  REBELLION  3°7 

512.  Copper    became    one    of    the    great  mineral  pro 
ductions    of   the    United  States  in    1844.      In    that  year 
the    Indians    at    last    gave   up   the   country   along    Lake 
Superior,  in  northern  Michigan  (§  454)  ;   and  exploration 
soon  found  it    to    be    rich   in    copper.      Companies  were 
formed  at  once,  and  copper-mining  became  a  productive 
industry. 

513.  The  Dorr  Rebellion The  power  to  vote  had  now 

been  given,  in  almost  all  the  States,  to  all  men  over  21 
years  of  age.      Rhode  Island,  however,  still  confined  the 
right  of  voting  to  those  who  owned  a  certain  amount  of 
property.      This,  and  some  other  features  of  the  govern 
ment,   were  very  unsatisfactory  to   many  of  the  people ; 
and  in  1 842  an  attempt  was  made  to  change  these  features 
of  the  government  by  force.      The  attempt  was  called  the 
Dorr  Rebellion,  from  the  name  of  its  leader.      It  was   put 
down  by  the  State   government,  and  its  leader  was  im 
prisoned  for  a  time ;  but  most  of  its  objects  were  accom 
plished  peaceably  within  a  few  years. 

514.  The  Anti-Renters. — The   descendants   of  some   of 
the  old  Dutch  "  patroons  "  (§  112)  still  held  their  lands 
along  the  Hudson  River,  and  refused  to  sell  them.      The 
rents  were   low ;  but  the  tenants  wished  to  buy  and  own 
their  lands,  the  leases  of  which  had  come  down  to  them 
from    their   fathers.      About    1844,    many  of  the   tenants 
refused  to  pay  rent  any  longer ;   and  there  were  so  many 
disturbances  that  the  governor  of  New  York  was  obliged 
to   call    out   the    militia   to   restore   order.      Most   of  the 
"  patroon  lands  "  were  then  gradually  sold  to  the  tenants, 
and  the  great  estates  disappeared. 

515.  The  Presidential  Election  in    1844  turned  on   the 
proposed  annexation   of  Texas   (§  507).      For    President 
and    Vice-President,    the    Whigs    nominated    Clay    and 
Theodore    Frelinghuysen,    then   of  New    York,    both    of 


308  TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR  [1844 

whom  were  opposed  to  annexation.  It  was  expected 
that  the  Democrats  would  again  nominate  Van  Buren 
(§  483) ;  but  he  was  also  opposed  to  annexation,  and  the 
Southern  Democrats  succeeded  in  preventing  his  nomina 
tion.  The  Democrats  then  nominated  James  K.  Polk,  of 
Tennessee,  and  George  M.  Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania,  who 
were  in  favor  of  annexation.  The  antislavery  men  in 
the  North  could  not  endure  the  thought  of  the  annexation 
of  more  slave  territory;  but  Clay's  opposition  was  not 
decided  enough  for  them,  and  the  Liberty  party  nominated 
candidates  of  their  own.  Clay  did  not  lose  many  votes 
by  this,  but  he  lost  enough  to  lose  the  great  State  of 
New  York  and  the  election.  Polk  and  Dallas  were 
elected.1 

516.  The  Result  of  the  Election  was  the  annexation  of 
Texas.  When  Congress  met  in  December,  it  took  the 
success  of  the  Democrats  as  a  verdict  by  the  people  in 
favor  of  annexation,  and  in  the  following  spring  passed  a 
resolution  consenting  to  it.  Tyler  at  once  sent  the  reso 
lution  to  Texas,  whose  government  agreed  to  it,  and  in 
the  following  December  the  State  of  Texas  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  (§  522).  Texas  was  the  last  slave  State 
admitted ;  but  from  the  time  of  its  admission  there  was 
hardly  any  peace  on  the  subject  of  slavery  until  slavery 
was  abolished  in  1865. 

1  There  were  275  electoral  votes,  of  which  Polk  and  Dallas  received  170, 
and  Clay  and  Frelinghuysen  105.  If  New  York's  36  votes  had  gone  to  Clay 
and  Frelinghuysen,  they  would  have  been  elected  by  141  votes  to  134 
(§  295)- 


FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION. 


3°9 


(II)  FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION:  1845-9 

JAMES  K.  POLK,  Tenn.,  President.          GEORGE  M.  DALLAS,  Perm.,  Vice-President. 

,    (i)   Internal  Affairs. 

517.  Discoveries  and  Inventions  were  numerous  during  this 
period.      One  of  the  most 

important  was  the  sewing- 
machine,  for  which  a 
patent  was  taken  out  by 
Elias  Howe,  of  Massa 
chusetts  (1846).  It  has 
since  been  greatly  im 
proved,  and  has  made 
household  life  and  work 
far  easier  than  when  all 
sewing  was  done  by  hand. 
Another  great  step  was 
the  use  of  ether  to  produce 
unconsciousness  during 
surgical  operations,  intro 
duced  by  Dr  Morton,  of 
Boston,  in  1846. 

518.  Newspapers.  —  R. 
M.    Hoe,    of  New    York, 

patented  his  cylinder  printing-press  (1847),  which,  with 
its  improvements,  has  made  it  possible  to  print  the  enor 
mous  number  of  copies  issued  by  the  newspapers  of  the 
present  day.  A  press  association  was  also  formed  in  New 
York  City  (1849):  its  business  was  to  gather  news  for 
all  the  newspapers  belonging  to  it.  There  are  now  a 
number  of  such  associations  in  the  country. 

519.  Education. — A  naval  school  was    formed  at   An 
napolis  (1845);  before  that  time,  the  officers  of  the  navy 


JAMES  K.  POLK. 


3io 


TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR 


[1846 


had  received  their  training  on  board  ship.      The  Smith 
sonian  Institution  was  founded  at  Washington   (1846),  by 


THE  HOE  PRINTING-MACHINE. 


a  legacy  left  to   the  United  States  by  James  Smithson, 
an  Englishman.       Its    purpose    is    to    aid   in    increasing 

knowledge ;  and  it  has  done 
so  by  forming  valuable 
museums,  and  by  printing 
and  issuing  to  the  people 
many  valuable  books  and 
papers  on  scientific  subjects 
of  special  importance. 

520.  The  Department  of 
the  Interior  was  organized 
as  one  of  the  departments 
of  the  government  (§  296). 
The  country  had  increased 
very  much_in  wealth ;  and  the  government  business  re 
lating  to  the  country  itself  had  become  so  large  that  the 
departments  of  State  and  the  Treasury  were  no  longer 
well  fitted  to  attend  to  it.  It  was  therefore  determined 
to  form  this  new  department  for  that  purpose. 


ANCIENT  HAND  PRINTING-PRESS. 


1846]  "FIFTY-FOUR  FORTY  OR  FIGHT"  311 

521.  In  Political  Affairs,  the  Democrats  had  obtained 
entire  control  of  the  government  by  the  election  of  1 844. 
In  1846,  they  re-established  the  Subtreasury  system 
(§  5OI)»  and  it  has  remained  in  force  ever  since.  In  the 
same  year,  the  last  remnant  of  the  "American  System  " 
(§  434)  was  swept  away.  A  new  tariff  act  was  passed, 
which  disregarded  the  principle  of  protection  to  manufac 
tures,  and  aimed  only  to  raise  revenue  for  the  govern 
ment.  This  system  remained  in  force  until  1 86 1 ,  when 
protection  was  again  begun  (§  691). 

522.*  New  States. — Three  new  States  were  admitted  to 
the  Union  during  Folk's  administration:  Iowa,  the  fourth 
State  formed  from -the  Louisiana  purchase,  in  1846;  Wis 
consin,  the  fifth  and  last  State  formed  from  the  old 
Northwest  Territory,  in  1848;  and  Texas.  Of  the  three, 
Texas  alone  had  slavery. 

523.  The  Oregon  Country  was  secured  to  the  United 
States  in  1846  by  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  which 
fixed  the  boundary  between  British  America  and  the 
United  States,  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as  at 
present.  The  United  States  had  claimed  some  territory 
north  of  this  line  as  far  as  Alaska,  in  latitude  54°  40';  and 
Great  Britain  had  claimed  the  territory  south  of  the  line 
to  the  Columbia  River.  A  large  party  in  the  United 
States  preferred  war  with  Great  Britain  to  giving  up  the 
American  claim:  they  demanded  "Fifty-four  Forty  or 
Fight. ' '  But  by  this  treaty  both  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  now  surrendered  part  of  their  claims,  and 
took  a  middle  line  as  the  boundary.1 

1  There  was  some  further  dispute  as  to  the  course  of  the  northern 
boundary-line  after  it  reached  the  Pacific  inlets  ;  but  this  was  settled  by 
another  treaty  in  1871  (§  777). 


312  TEXAS   AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR  [1846 

(2)    Origin  of  tJie  Mexican    War. 

524.  The  Texan  Boundary. — Texas  was  still  claimed  by 
Mexico  as  a  part  of  her  territory;    and  she  was  naturally 
displeased  when,  without  her  consent,  Texas  was  annexed 
to  the  United  States.      Nevertheless  she  showed  no  signs 
of  intention  to  make  war,  and  seemed  disposed  to  settle 
the  matter  by  treaty.      Before  this  could  be  done,  steps 
were  taken  which  made  war  unavoidable.      The  western 
boundary  of  Texas  was  unsettled.      Mexico  asserted  that 
it  was   the   Nueces   River;    Texas,   that   it  was   the   Rio 
Grande.      Between  the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande  was  a 
strip  of  territory  claimed  by  both  parties ;  and  in  this  the 
Mexican  war    began.      Early  in    1846,    General   Taylor, 
who  commanded  in  Texas,  was  ordered  by  President  Polk 
to    take    possession    of  the   disputed    territory.       Taylor 
crossed  the  Nueces  at  Corpus  Christi,  marched  his  army 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  took  up  his  position  at  Brownsville 
(then  called  Fort  Brown). 

525.  The  First  Bloodshed. — Taylor  found  that  Mexican 
troops   were   crossing   the   Rio   Grande;    and   he   sent   a 
scouting  party  of  dragoons,  under  Captain  Thornton,  up 
the  river  from  Brownsville.      Thornton's  party  was  sur 
prised   and   captured   by   a   superior    force   of  Mexicans. 
Several  men  were  killed  and  wounded,  so  that  this  was 
the  first  bloodshed  of  the  war. 

526.  Palo   Alto   and   Resaca   de   la   Palma. — So    many 
Mexicans  had  now  crossed  the  river  that  Taylor  moved 
back  toward  the  Nueces  River,  with  about  2,000  men,  to 
secure  a  part  of  his  supplies.      Having  accomplished  this, 
he  set  out  on  his  return  to  Brownsville.      On  his  road  he 
met  the  Mexican  army,  three  times  his  own  number,  at 
Palo  Alto,  near  Brownsville,  and  defeated  them  after  a 
whole    afternoon's    battle.      The   next    morning,    Taylor 


1846]         PALO  ALTO  AND  RES  AC  A  DE  LA  PALM  A  313 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  50  l&O  200 

WAR  WITH  MEXICO. 


314  TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR  [1846 

resumed  his  march  towards  Brownsville,  and  found  the 
Mexicans  strongly  posted  behind  a  ravine  called  Resaca 
de  la  Palma.  He  attacked  them  again,  routed  them,  and 
drove  them  across  the  Rio  Grande  into  Mexico.  He  then 
followed  leisurely  across  the  river,  took  possession  of 
Matamoras,  and  there  waited  for  reinforcements  (§  531). 

It  is  only  fair  to  notice  that  the  Mexicans  were  under 
great  disadvantages  throughout  the  war,  though  they 
were  themselves  to  blame  for  them.  Their  men  were 
untrained;  their  arms  and  equipments  were  bad;  their 
government  \vas  inefficient,  and  had  little  money;  and 
their  generals  were  usually  ignorant  and  worthless.  But, 
even  with  this  admission,  the  manner  in  which  the  armies 
of  the  United  States  constantly  defeated  superior  numbers 
throughout  the  war  must  be  considered  remarkable. 

527.  War  Declared. — As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  cap 
ture  of  Thornton's  scouting  party  reached  Washington, 
the  President  sent  it  to  Congress  for  consideration.  May 
13,  1846,  Congress  declared  that  war  existed  "by  the  act 
of  the  Republic  of  Mexico."  Ten  million  dollars  was 
appropriated,  and  the  President  was  authorized  to  accept 
fifty  thousand  volunteers.  The  war  excitement  rose  high 
in  the  country,  and  over  200,000  volunteers  offered  their 
services.  The  Whigs  opposed  the  declaration  of  war,  for 
they  believed  that  the  war  existed  by  the  act  of  President 
Polk,  and  not  by  act  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  But 
they  voted  for  the  appropriations,  because  they  considered 
that  the  American  troops  had  been  sent  into  danger  by 
the  President,  and  must  be  rescued.  In  New  England 
there  were  hardly  any  volunteers,  and  the  war  was  looked 
on  with  great  disfavor. 


1846]  CALIFORNIA   AND  NEW  MEXICO  315 

(3)    Operations  on  the  Pacific. 

528.  The  Mexican  Territory,  at  the  opening  of  the  war, 
included  what  are  now  the  States  of  California,  Utah,  and 
Nevada,  the  Territories  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and 
parts    of   Colorado    and    Wyoming.      Mexico    had    done 
hardly   anything   to   settle  this  region,    and    it  was    little 
more  than  a  wilderness.      No  one  suspected  that  it  con 
tained  a  wealth  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals;   but  it 
was  known  to  be  fertile,  and  it  contained  the  finest  harbor 
on  the  coast,    San    Francisco   Bay.      When  war   became 
probable,  preparations  were  made  to  conquer  it,  by  send 
ing  a  fleet  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

529.  California  and  New  Mexico. — California  was  taken 
in  the  summer  of  1 846  by  the  fleet  under  Commodores 
Sloat  and  Stockton,  aided  by  Fremont,  who  had  moved 
into  California  from  his  explorations  in   Oregon  (§  503). 
The  towns  of  San  Francisco,  Monterey,  and  Los  Angeles 
were  captured  with   little  resistance ;   and  before  the  end 
of  the  year  all   California  was  under  American  control. 
The  Mexicans  rose  once  in  revolt,  but  were  finally  over 
thrown,  early  in  1847,  in  trie  battle  of  San  Gabriel,  near 
Los  Angeles.      New  Mexico  was  seized,  during  the  same 
summer,  by  an  overland   expedition   from   Fort  Leaven- 
worth,  under  General  S.  W.  Kearney.      Kearney,  with  a 
little  army  of  about   1,800  men,  crossed    the  plains,  cap 
tured  Santa  Fe,  and  New  Mexico  passed  into  American 
control.      He  then  set  off  for  California,  leaving  Colonel 
Doniphan  in  command.      Doniphan  left  a  force  at  Santa 
Fe  to  hold  New  Mexico,  and  moved  south  with  the  rest 
of  his   force    into    Mexico.      Two    sharp    and    successful 
battles  against  superior  numbers  gave  him  possession  of 
the  city  of  Chihuahua  and  the  country  around  it.     But  the 
time  for  which  his  men  were  enlisted  had  expired,  and  he 


316  TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR  [1846 

could  advance  no  farther.  He  therefore  turned  aside  into 
Texas,  and  thence  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  discharged 
his  troops. 

530.  Acquisition   of   Territory.  —  The    result    of  these 
movements  was  that  all  the  territory  named  above  (§  528) 
was  in  possession  of  the  United  States.      It  was  believed 
in  the  United  States  that  Americans  could  make  a  far 
better  use  of  all  this  territory  than  the  Mexicans  had  ever 
done,    and   that  it  would  be  an   excellent  thing  for  the 
territory  and  for  the  United  States  if  the  conquest  were 
retained.      It  was    therefore    decided    to    keep    it   at  the 
end   of  the   war,    if   possible,   but  to   pay  Mexico  for  it 
(§  543).      All  the  following  battles  of  the  war  were  fought 
in  Mexico,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  Mexicans  away 
from  the  conquered  territory,  and  forcing  them  to  make 
a  peace. 

(4)    Operations  in  Northern,  Mexico. 

531,  Monterey. — In  the   autumn  of  1846,  Taylor,  with 
about  6,000  men,  moved  forward  into  Mexico  from  Mata- 
moras  (§  S2^).      The  main  Mexican  force,  nearly  twice  as 
large  as  Taylor's,  took  up  a  position  in  Monterey,  a  city 
difficult  to  attack  and  strongly  fortified.      The  Americans 
were  obliged  to  storm  the  walls,  and  then  to  carry  on  a 
desperate  struggle  within  the  town.      Many  of  the  streets 
had  to  be  cleared  of  the  enemy  by  fighting  from  house  to 
house,  or  by  breaking  down  the  walls  between  the  houses, 
for  the  streets  were  barricaded  or  commanded  by  artillery. 
In  four  days  the  work  was  done,  and  the  Mexican  army 
surrendered.  •     At    Monterey,     Taylor    was    joined     by 
General  Wool,  with  3,000  men.      Wool  had  set  out  from 
San   Antonio,   in  Texas,   to    attack  Chihuahua;    but  the 
expedition  had  been  given  up. 


1847]  BUENA    VISTA  3T7 

532.  Taylor's  Position  became  very  unsafe   before  the 
end  of  the  year.      He  had  pressed  on  beyond  Monterey 
as  far  as  Saltillo,  when  many  of  his  best  men  and  officers 
were  taken  from  him  to  strengthen  General  Scott  in  cen 
tral  Mexico  (§  534).      He  then  had  less  than  5,000  men, 
most  of  them  new  recruits    and  poorly  disciplined,   and 
was  forced  to  give  up  any  farther  advance.      Santa  Anna 
(§  5°6)    was    now    again    at    the    head   of   the   Mexican 
Government;    and   he   seized   this  opportunity  to  march 
against  Taylor  with  over   20,000  'men.      In  spite  of  the 
tremendous  odds  against  him,  Taylor  marched  toward  his 
enemy  until  he  found  a  battle-ground  that  suited  him  at 
Buena    Vista,    and    there    waited.      The    Mexican    army 
reached  him   February   22,    1847,  an<^  battle  was  joined 
next  day. 

533.  Buena  Vista. — Taylor  had  placed  his  army  at  the 
upper  end  of  a  long  and  narrow  pass  in  the  mountains, 
with  high  cliffs  on  one  side  and  deep  ravines  on  the  other, 
so  that  the  Mexicans  could  not  pass  him,  but  must  attack 
him  in  front.      All  day  long  the  Mexicans  charged  up  the 
pass ;  but  their  charges  were  beaten  steadily  back,  and  at 
nightfall    they    were    forced    to    retreat.       Northeastern 
Mexico  was  thus  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Americans,  and 
there   was   no   further   serious   fighting   in    that    quarter. 
Taylor  soon  afterward  returned    to    the    United   States, 
where  he  was  honored  as  the  hero  of  the  war,  and  was 
elected  President  the  next  year  (§  548). 

(5)    Operations  in   Central  Mexico. 

534.  A  Change  of  Plan  had  been  decided  upon  by  the 
authorities  at  Washington.      General  Winfield  Scott,  the 
oldest    of  the   American  generals,  was  to  be    sent  with 
a  selected  force,   in    more    than    150    vessels,   to   attack 


TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR 


[1847 


Vera  Cruz,  from  which  point  was  the  shortest  road  from 
the    coast  to    the  city  of   Mexico.      If  he  could  capture 

the  capital,  he  was  to 
hold  it  until  the  Mexicans 
were  willing  to  make 
peace.  All  the  other 
American  armies  were 
merely  to  hold  what  they 
had  already  gained.  All 
the  fighting  by  Scott's 
army,  which  ended  the 
war,  took  place  in  1847. 

535.  Vera  Cruz  was  at 
tacked  early  in  March. 
Scott  landed  before  the 
city  with  12,000  men; 
and,  after  a  bombard 
ment  of  nine  days,  the 
city  and  its  great  fort  of 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  the 
strongest  in  Mexico,  surrendered.  The  army  prepared 
for  an  immediate  march  toward  Mexico,  for  the  coast  of 
Vera  Cruz  was  so  hot  and  sickly  that  it  would  have  been 
dangerous  for  an  army  to  remain  there  during  the  summer 
months.  The  navy  took  possession  of  the  Mexican  ports 
on  the  coast,  and  collected  the  customs  duties  for  the 
benefit  of  the  United  States. 

536,  Cerro  Gordo. — Soon  after  leaving  Vera  Cruz,  the 
road  to  Mexico  begins  to  rise,  and  abounds  in  mountains 
and  narrow  passes,  which  are  natural  fortifications.  At 
one  of  these  passes,  called  Cerro  Gordo,  near  Jalapa, 
Santa  Anna  had  collected  an  army  of  about  12,000  men. 
Early  in  April,  Scott's  army,  now  numbering  but  9,000 
men,  reached  Cerro  Gordo,  and  attacked  it.  The  battle 


WINFIELD  SCOTT. 


1 847]  THE  MARCH    TO  MEXICO  3T9 

was  a  complete  victory  for  the  Americans :  five  Mexican 
generals  and  3,000  prisoners  were  captured,  and  the  rest 
of  the  Mexicans  were  pushed  into  headlong  retreat. 

537.  The  March  to  Mexico  met  with  little  further  resistance 
until      August.        Scott 

passed  on  through  Jala- 
pa  to  Puebla.  As  this 
was  high,  cool,  and 
more  healthy  ground,  he 
kept  his  army  here  dur 
ing  the  summer,  waiting 
for  reinforcements. 
Santa  Anna,  also,  was 

U  S'J  100  150  £00 

busily  collecting  troops 

-  ,,        ,  SCOTT'S  MARCH  TO  MEXICO. 

for  the  final  struggle. 

538.  The  Valley  of   Mexico. — In  August,   with    11,000 
men,  Scott  again  set  out,    and  reached  the  edge   of  the 
valley  of  Mexico  without  a  battle.      Before  him  lay  the 
valley,  like  a  great  bowl   sunk  into  the   mountains.      In 
the  middle  of  it  was  Mexico,  a  city  of  200,000  inhabitants, 
surrounded    by  strong   walls    and    extensive  lakes;    and 
before  reaching  it,  the  little  American  army  was  to  capture 
many  strongholds,  and  disperse  a  Mexican  army  of  three 
times  its  own  number.      So  many  forts  had  been  built  on 
the   regular   roads   that   the    Americans  cut   a  new  road 
around  them  for  themselves,  and  came  into  the  valley  at 
an  undefended  point. 

539.  A  Day  of  Victories. — Scott's  army  moved  down  the 
mountain-side  to  a  point  about  ten  miles  from  the  city. 
Here  the  fighting  began,  and  in  a  single  day  (August  20) 
five   victories    were   won.      (i)   Before    sunrise   the    main 
American  force  stormed  the  fortified  camp  of  Contreras, 
taking  but  17  minutes  to  do  the  work.      (2)   A  little  later 
in  the  day,  another  division   stormed  the  fortified  village 


320  TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   IV A R  [1847 

of  SaA  Antonio.  (3)  About  the  same  time,  one  division 
stormed  one  of  the  fortified  heights  of  Cherubusco,  and 
(4)  another  division  stormed  the  other.  (5)  While  these 
assaults  were  being  made,  Santa  Anna  moved  out  of  the 
city  to  assist  his  garrisons.  The  American  reserve  force 
attacked  him,  beat  him,  and  chased  him  up  to  the  walls 
of  the  city.  Before  night,  almost  the  whole  Mexican 
force  was  inside  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 

540.  Negotiations  for  peace  were  now  proposed  by  Santa 
Anna,  to  which  Scott  agreed.      They  went  on  for  three 
weeks,  until  Scott  found  that  Santa  Anna  was  only  using 
the  time  to  strengthen  the  defences  of  the  city.      He  then 
broke  off  negotiations,  and  renewed  the  war. 

541.  Chapultepec,  a  strong  castle  perched  on  the  top  of 
a  very  steep  hill,  was  now  the  principal  Mexican  strong 
hold  outside  of  the  city.      Below  it  was  a  smaller  fortifica 
tion  called  Molino    del   Rey,   which  was  first    captured. 
Nearly  a  week  afterward,  the  grand  assault  was  made  on 
Chapultepec.      The  Americans  had  to  climb  the  cliff,  and 
then  use  scaling-ladders  to  get  into  the  windows  of  the 
castle.    The  Mexicans  resisted  bravely,  and  even  attempted 
to  blow  up  the  castle  with  every  one  in  it;   but  the  men 
who   were    to    light   the    trains   were    shot   down    as    the 
Americans  swarmed  in,  and   Chapultepec  was  captured. 
Immediately  afterward,  the  whole  American  army  moved 
around  to  a  side  of  the  city  where  no  attack  had  been 
expected ;   and  before  night  it  had  won  two  of  the  gates, 
and  was  inside  the  walls. 

542.  Capture  of  Mexico.  — During  the  night,  Santa  Anna 
fled  from  the  city  with  the  remainder  of  his  army;  and  in 
the  morning  of  September   14,   1847,  Scott's  army,  now 
reduced  to  6,000  men,  marched  through  the  main  street, 
and  raised  the  flag  of  the  United  States  over  the  national 
palace.      The  end  of  the  war  was  reached  by  the  fall  of 


1848]  PEACE  321 

Mexico.  There  was  some  fighting  by  irregular  Mexican 
troops,  called  guerrillas;  and  the  American  sick  and 
wounded  at  Puebla  beat  off  a  Mexican  force  which  tried 
to  besiege  them.  But  the  real  fighting  of  the  war  was 
over,  and  the  only  difficulty  was  to  arrange  the  terms  of 
peace. 

(6)   Peace. 

543,  The  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. — Conditions  of 
peace  were  not  easy  to  arrange.      The  United  States  in 
sisted  that  Mexico  should  give  up  its  northern  territory 
(§  528),  as  a  punishment  for  having  provoked  the  war. 
Mexico  was  very  unwilling  to  agree,  and  it  \vas  not  until 
February,    1848,  that  a   new  Mexican   government  con 
sented  to   make   peace   on    these   terms.      The  treaty  of 
peace  was  called  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  from 
the  little  town  in  which  it  was  agreed  upon.      Mexico  was 
to  receive  $15,000,000  in  return  for  the  ceded  territory, 
and  her  debts  of  $3,000,000,  due  to  American  citizens, 
were  to  be  paid  for  her.      The  Senate  of  the  United  States 
ratified  the  treaty;  peace  was  restored;  and  the  American 
armies  evacuated  Mexico. 

544.  Territorial  Additions. — The  annexation  of  Texas, 
the  cession  by  Mexico,  and  the  Gadsden  purchase,  south 
of  the    Gila    River,    for    $10,000,000,    in    1853,    added 
967,451   square  miles  to   the    United    States.      This  was 
more  than  the  area  of  the    United  States  in   1783,   and 
almost  as  much  as  the  Louisiana  purchase  (§  334).      The 
additions  gave  the  United  States  the  form  and  boundaries 
which  are  still  retained,  with  the  exception  of  the  pur 
chase  of  Alaska  in  1867  (§  773).      The  territorial  growth 
of  the  continental  United  States  may  be  divided  into  four 
great   divisions:    (i)    the    United    States,    as    left   by   the 
Revolution,  altogether  east  of  the  Mississippi,  with  Florida 


322  TEXAS  AND    THE  MEXICAN   WAR  [1848 

added  in  1819;  (2)  Louisiana,  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
with  Oregon  added  in  1846;  (3)  Texas  and  the  Mexican 
cessions;  and  (4)  Alaska.  Of  these,  the  second  was  the 
largest,  the  third  next,  the  first  next,  and  the  fourth 
smallest  of  all. 

545.  Slavery. — The  Mexican  cession  brought  up  again 
the  question  of  slavery  in  the  Territories,  which  had  been 
settled  with    so    much    difficulty  in   1820  (§418)..     The 
question  was  now  to  be  decided  over  again  as  to  this  new 
territory;     and    the     two    sections    were     now    so    much 
stronger,  and  so  much  more  in  earnest,  that  a  settlement 
was    much    more    difficult    than    in    1820.       The    South 
demanded  that  slavery  should  be   permitted  in  the  new 
territory,  since  Southern  immigrants  would  not  be  able  to 
settle  there  unless  they  were  allowed  to  take  their  slaves 
with  them.      The  North  demanded  that  slavery  should  be 
forbidden,  since  the  territory  was  already  free  by  Mexican 
law  (§  505),  and  any  introduction  of  slavery  would  keep 
free-State  immigrants  from  going  thither.      There  was  no 
middle  ground :   free  labor  and  slave  labor  could  not  use 
the  same  territory.      It  was  proposed  by  some  to  divide 
the  territory  by  the  Missouri  Compromise  line,  the  parallel 
of  36°   30',  which  would  reach  the  Pacific  at  about  the 
middle  of  California,  and  to  forbid  slavery  north  of  the 
line,  and  allow  slavery  south  of  it;   but  neither  party  was 
willing  to  agree  to  this  sacrifice. 

546.  The  Wilmot  Proviso* — In   1 846,   when  it  was  first 
proposed    to     make    Mexico    give    up    territory,    David 
Wilmot,  a  member  of  Congress  from  Pennsylvania,  intro 
duced  what  was  called  from  him  the  Wilmot  Proviso.      It 
appropriated  money  to  buy  the  territory,  provided  that 
slavery  should  not  be  allowed  in  it.      The  South  proved 
to  be  opposed  to  the  proviso ;   it  never  became  law ;  and 
the  new  territory  was  acquired  without  it.      Thus,  when 


1848]  THE  PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTION  323 

this  administration  ended,  the  United  States  owned  a  vast 
amount  of  new  territory,  without  having  as  yet  decided 
whether  slavery  was  to  be  allowed  or  forbidden  in  it. 

547.  The  Free-Soil  Party  came  into  existence  in  1848. 
It  was  composed  of  former  Democrats  and  Whigs  who 
supported  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  together  with  the  Aboli 
tionists,  or  Liberty  party  (§  498).      The  old  parties,    the 
Democrats  and  the  Whigs,  had  Southern  members  whom 
they  were   afraid   of  losing,    and   they   both   refused   the 
Wilmot  Proviso.      Thus  the    "  Free-soilers  "   were  com 
pelled  to  form  a  new  party  of  their  own. 

548.  The  Presidential  Election  in   1 848  was  decided  by 
the  new  party.      The  Democratic  candidates  were  Lewis 
Cass,  of  Michigan,  for  President,  and  William  O.  Butler, 
of  Kentucky,  for  Vice-President.      The  Whig  candidates 
were    General    Zachary    Taylor    and     Millard     Fillmore 
(§  557)-      Neither   of  these   parties   said    anything   about 
slavery  in  the  new  territory.      The  Free-soilers  proposed 
to   forbid   slavery    in   the    new  territory,    and    nominated 
ex-President    Van    Buren   (§  483),   and   Charles    Francis 
Adams,   of  Massachusetts.      The  vote  for   the    Free-soil 
candidates  was  not  very  large,  but  it  decided  the  Presi 
dential  election,   as  in   1844  (§515).      It  took  so   many 
votes  from  the   Democrats  in  New  York  as  to  give  the 
vote  of  that  great  State  to  the  Whigs ;   and  Taylor  and 
Fillmore  were  elected.1 

549.  California,  lately  conquered  from  Mexico,  proved 
to   be   a   treasure-house.      Gold   was    discovered   on    the 
Sacramento  River,   early  in   1848,  just  before  the  treaty 
with  Mexico  was  agreed  upon  (§  543).     While  a  saw-mill 
and    mill-dam    were    being    constructed,    some    shining 

1  The  electoral  votes  were  163  for  Taylor  and  Fillmore  and  127  for  Cass 
and  Butler  (§  295).  If  New  York's  36  votes  had  been  given  to  Cass  and 
Butler,  they  would  have  been  elected  by  163  votes  to  127. 


324  TEXAS   AND    THE   MEXICAN   WAR  [1849 

particles  were  noticed  in  the  sand.  They  proved  to  be 
gold,  and  it  was  soon  found  that  the  soil  was  rich  in  the 
metal.  No  such  gold-mines  had  been  seen  in  the  world 
before.  Other  mines  had  produced  a  little  gold  with  a 
great  deal  of  labor :  these  gave  a  great  deal  of  gold  with 
little  labor.  The  few  Americans  in  California  crowded 
to  the  "  diggings  "  ;  and  lucky  finders  worked  for  a  few 
weeks  or  months,  and  then  went  home  rich,  or  spent 
their  fortunes  in  San  Francisco  or  New  York. 

550.  The  Gold-fever. — The  news  of  the  discovery  was 
hardly  believed  at  first  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  the 
country;    but   early  in    1849,    when   California    gold  was 
brought  to  the  mint  at  Philadelphia,  and  was  pronounced 
genuine,    a  great  excitement  broke    out.      Men  from  all 
parts  of  the  country  flocked  to  California:   they  went  by 
steamer  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  crossed  it,  and  sailed 
up  the  coast  to  San  Francisco  ;  they  bought  sailing-vessels, 
and  went    around   Cape    Horn ;    they  travelled   overland 
across   the   plains.      The  fever  was   not  confined  to   the 
United  States,  but  spread  to  Furope.      Within  two  years 
there  were  100,000  persons  in  California,  and  San   Fran 
cisco  was  a  rapidly  growing  city  of  20,000  inhabitants. 

551.  The   Leading   Events    of    the    administrations    of 
Harrison,  Tyler,  and  Polk  were  as  follows: 

1841 :  Death  of  Harrison,  and  succession  of  Tyler §  500 

Tyler  and  the  Whigs  quarrel 501 

1842  :  New  tariff  act  passed 501 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain 502 

The  Dorr  Rebellion 513 

1844  :  The  first  electric  telegraph 510 

Copper  discovered  in  Michigan 512 

Anti-Rent  troubles  in  New  York 514 

1845  :  Florida  admitted  to  the  Union 509 

Texas  annexed  to  the  United  States 516 

Texas  admitted  to  the  Union 522 

1846  :  Iowa  admitted  to  the  Union 522 


1849]  LEADING  EVENTS  325 

1846:  Sewing-machine  invented §5*7 

Smithsonian  Institution  founded 519 

Subtreasury  system  re-established 521 

New  tariff  act  passed 521 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain 523 

War  declared  against  Mexico  (May  13) 527 

Battle  of  Palo  Alto  (May  8) 526 

Battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (May  9) 526 

Conquest  of  California  (summer) 529 

Conquest  of  New  Mexico  (summer) 529 

Battle  of  Monterey  (September  24) 531 

1847:  Battle  of  Buena  Vista  (February  23) 533 

Capture  of  Vera  Cruz  (March  27) <  .  535 

Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo  (April  18). 536 

Battle  of  Contreras  (August  20) 539 

Battle  of  Chapultepec  (September  13) 541 

Capture  of  Mexico  (September  14) 542 

1848:  Gold  discovered  in  California  (January  19) 549 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  with  Mexico  (Feb.  2) 543 

Wisconsin  admitted  to  the  Union 522 

1849:  The  "  gold-fever" 550 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Fremont's  explorations. 

2.  Early  history  of  Texas. 

3.  Causes  of  the  Mexican  war. 

4.  Geography  of  the  Mexican  cession. 

5.  Life  in  a  California  mining-camp. 

6.  Overland  routes  to  California. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  the  treaties 
of  1842  and  1846  with  Great  Britain  (Nos.  70  and  74),  the 
resolution  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  (No.  71),  Folk's  war 
message  and  the  war  act  (Nos.  72  and  73),  the  independent 
treasury  act  of  1846  (No.  75),  and  Giddings's  slavery  resolu 
tions  (No.  69).  The  text  of  the  Wilmot  proviso  is  in  ibid., 
p.  378.  The  party  platforms  are  in  Stanwood's  History  of  the 
Presidency. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  general  authorities  remain  as  in 
Chap.  XV.,  with  the  addition  of  Tyler's  Letters  and  Times  of 


326  TEXAS  AND   THE  MEXICAN   WAR  [1849 

the  Tylers,  Curtis's  Buchanan,  Pierce's  Sumner,  and  Nicolay 
and  Hay's  Lincoln.  H.  H.  Bancroft's  Oregon,  California, 
Mexico,  and  North  Mexican  Slates  and  Texas  are  the  most 
elaborate  special  histories.  On  the  Mexican  war  see  Jay's 
Mexican  War  and  Ripley's  War  with  Mexico.  Much  of  the 
period  is  traversed  by  works  on  the  later  slavery  contests 
(Chapters  XVII.  and  XVIII. ). 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Dickens's  Martin  Chuzzlewil  and 
American  Notes ;  Hawthorne's  Blithedale  Romance ;  Lucy  G. 
Morse's  Rachel  Stanwood ;  Amelia  E.  Barr's  Remember  the 
Alamo;  Cooper's  Redskins;  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers ;  F.  Bret 
Harte's  Tales  of  the  Argonauts  ;  Dana's  Two  Years  before  the 
Mast ;  Edward  Eggleston's  The  Gray  sons. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE    STRUGGLE    FOR   SLAVE   TERRITORY 
1849-1857 

(I)  TAYLOR'S  AND  FILLMORE'S  ADMINISTRATION'S:  1849-53 

ZACHARY  TAYLOR,  La.,  Pres.  MILLARD  FILLMORE,  N.  Y.,  Vice-Pres.  and  Pres. 


ZACHARY  TAYLOR. 


MILLARD  FILLMORE. 


552.  Sectional   Feeling. — The  story  of  the  years  from 
1849   to    1857    is    one    °f  growing   separation   of  feeling 

327 


328  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE    TERRITORY          [1849 

between  the  sections.  The  sections  were  different,  from . 
the  fact  that  slavery  was  dead  in  the  North,  while  it  was 
in  full  vigor  in  the  South.  The  men  who  owned  slaves 
in  the  South  were  not  a  large  part  of  its  population :  l  but 
they  were  the. richest,  ablest,  and  most  influential  men  of 
their  section,  and  were  very  apt  to  consider  any  attack 
upon  slavery  as  an  attack  upon  the  South.  The  great 
increase  of  railroads  and  of  other  kinds  of  industry  in 
which  more  than  one  State  was  interested  had  made  the 
people  of  the  North  learn  to  think  of  the  Union  mainly 
as  one  country,  from  which  no  State  had  a  right  to  with 
draw.  In  the  South,  where  slavery  prevented  the 
development  of  any  such  kinds  of  industry,  the  notions  of 
State  sovereignty  and  of  the  right  of  secession  were  still 
sincerely  held.  All  through  these  twelve  years,  those 
who  owned  slaves  were  becoming  more  and  more  angry 
at  successive  attacks  upon  slavery,  and  more  and  more 
anxious  to  induce  their  States  to  secede.  Much  as  the 
people  of  the  South  loved  the  idea  of  State  sovereignty, 
however,  they  loved  the  Union  more ;  and  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  they  were  finally  brought  to  agree  to 
the  attempt  to  secede.  Thus  this  period  runs  into  war 
between  the  sections;  for  it  was  found  at  last  that  the 
people  of  the  North  were  willing  to  fight  rather  than 
permit  the  country  to  be  broken  in  pieces. 

553.  The  Situation.  —  From  the  very  beginning  of 
Taylor's  term  of  office  most  of  the  country's  difficulties 
were  mixed  up,  in  one  way  or  other,  with  the  matter  of 
slavery.  In  the  summer  of  I  849,  the  people  of  California, 
being  troubled  with  a  great  many  lawless  immigrants, 
and  unwilling  to  wait  for  Congress  to  give  them  a  Terri 
torial  government,  formed  a  State  constitution  of  their 

1  Only  about  200,000  persons  out  of  nearly  10,000,000:  or  about  one  in 
every  fifty. 


1850]  THE   COMPROMISE   OF    iS5o  329 

own,  and  applied  for  admission ;  but  this  constitution  for 
bade  slavery,  and  many  Southern  members  were  therefore 
determined  to  resist  the  admission  of  the  new  State. 
Texas  claimed  a  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  was  preparing 
to  send  troops  to  enforce  the  claim.  The  North  com 
plained  of  the  selling  of  slaves  in  the  national  capital,  and 
the  South  complained  that  the  laws  for  the  return  of  run 
away  slaves  were  disobeyed  or  resisted  in  the  North. 
Utah  and  New  Mexico  needed  Territorial  governments : 
but  the  North  controlled  one  House  of  Congress  and 
the  South  the  other,  and  the  two  could  not  agree  as 
to  whether  slavery  should  be  allowed  or  forbidden  in 
them. 

554.  The   Omnibus   Bill.  —  Clay    had    already    shown 
peculiar  skill  in  settling  difficulties   of  this  kind.      He  had 
contrived  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  1820  (§  418),  and 
the  compromise  tariff  in    1833  (§  478).      He  was  now  in 
the   Senate,  and  set  himself  to  arrange  a  third  compro 
mise.      In  May,   1850,  all  the  matters  above  stated  were 
referred  to  a  committee  of  which  he  was  chairman.      This 
committee  brought  forward  a  general  plan  of  settlement, 
covering  in  one  proposed  measure  so  many  of  the  points 
in  dispute  that  the  bill  was  commonly  called  the  Omnibus 
Bill.      One    by   one   the   various   parts  were   passed   and 
became  laws  in  September;  and  they  are  called,  together, 
the  Compromise  of  1850. 

555.  The  Compromise  of  1850  included  five  parts,      (i) 
California  was  admitted  without  slavery.      (2)   Texas  was 
to  receive  $10,000,000  for  giving  up  her  claims  to  New 
Mexico.      (3)   The  rest  of  the  Mexican  cession,  outside 
of  California,  was  to  be  divided  into  two  Territories,  Utah 
(including  Nevada)  and  New  Mexico  (including  Arizona) ; 
and  slavery  was  neither  forbidden  nor  permitted  in  them. 
(4)   Slavery  was  still  to  be  permitted  in   the  District  of 


330  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE    TERRITORY          [1850 

Columbia,  but  there  was  to  be  no  buying  or  selling  of 
negroes.      (5)   A  new  fugitive-slave  law  was  passed. 

556.  The  Fugitive-Slave  Law  provided  for  the  arrest  of 
runaway  slaves  in  the  Northern  States  by  United  States 
officers.     If  a  person  was  arrested  as  a  runaway,  his  testi 
mony  was  not  to  be  taken ;  and  for  this  reason  there  were 
cases  of  great  harshness,  and  arrests-  and  convictions  of 
persons  who  probably  never  had  been  slaves.      As  soon 
as   the   law  ^began   to   be   enforced,   it  excited   the   only 
strong  opposition  that  met  any  part  of  the  Compromise  of 
1850.      The  Abolitionists  had  always  considered  slavery 
"a  sin  against  God  and  a  crime  against  man."      Others, 
who  had  thought  little  about  the  matter,  were  brought  to 
the  same  opinion  by  the  cases   of  severity  in  the  chase 
after  runaway  slaves  in  the  North.     Nothing  had  yet  done 
so  much  to  increase  the  number  of  antislavery  men  in  the 
North  as  this  new  fugitive-slave  law. 

557.  Death  of  Taylor — While  the  Compromise  of  1850 
was   still   under   discussion,    President   Taylor   died,   and 
Vice-President  Fillmore  became  President  in  his  stead. 
Taylor  was  a  simple  and  honest  soldier,  who  was  com 
monly  called  "Rough  and  Ready  "  by  his  men  and  by 
the  people;    and  he  was    greatly  regretted.      But    there 
was  no  such  quarrel  between  Congress  and  Fillmore  as  in 
Tyler's  case  (§  501). 

558.  A  Change   of   Leaders  marks  this    administration. 
During  its  four  years,  Clay,  Webster,  Calhoun,  Polk,  and 
Taylor  died;    and  a    number  of  less    prominent    leaders 
either  died  or  left  public  life.      There  appeared  in  Congress 
a  number  of  able  antislavery  leaders,  the  most  prominent 
being    Charles    Sumner,   of   Massachusetts,    William    H. 
Seward,   of  New  York,  and  Salmon  P.    Chase,   of  Ohio. 
There  had  been  antislavery  men  in  Congress  before ;  but 
none  of  them,  excepting  John  Quincy  Adams  and  John  P. 


i85o] 


RESULTS  OF  THE  COMPROMISE 


33* 


Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  were  as  able  as  these  new  men. 
There  were  new  Southern  leaders  also,  who  were  very 
warm  in  their  support  of  slav 
ery,  Jefferson  Davis  (§  614) 
being  one  of  the  most  promi 
nent. 

559.  Results  of    the    Com 
promise. — Most    people  were 
content  with  the  Compromise, 
except    as     to  the    Fugitive- 
Slave  La\v.      But  it  was  really 
an  unfortunate  settlement.     It 
was  a   public    recognition    of 
the  fact  that  there  were  now 
two   sections    in    the    United 
States,  instead  of  one  nation ; 
and  from  this  time  it  was  more 
and    more    difficult   to    make 
laws  which  were  satisfactory 
to  both  sections. 

560.  Change  of  Parties. — Until  this  time,  there  had  been 
Northern   and    Southern    Democrats,   and   Northern   and 
Southern  Whigs.      Many  of  the  Northern  Whigs  were  not 
inclined  to  support  slavery;    and  therefore  many  of  the 
Southern  Whigs  began  to  leave  their  former  party,  and 
vote  and  act  with   the  Democrats.      The  result  was  that 
the  Southern  portion  of  the  Democratic  party  was  steadily 
growing  stronger,  while  the  Whig  party  went  to  pieces 
after  the  next  Presidential  election,  leaving  for  about  two 
years  only  one  great  party,  the  Democratic   party.      All 
this  meant,  of  course,  that  even  the  parties  were  becom 
ing  sectional. 

561.  The  Population  of  the  United  States  in  1850  was 
23,191,876}  an  increase  of  6,000,000  since  1840  (§  490). 


SALMON  P.  CHASE. 


332  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE   TERRITORY        [1852 

Railroads,  telegraphs,  steamers,  banks,  and  commerce 
were  increasing  as  rapidly  as  the  population.  Prosperity 
was  universal ;  but  the  only  important  new  direction  it 
had  yet  taken  was  the  gold  production  of  California. 

562.  A  Pacific  Railroad,  to   connect   California    to  the 
Eastern  States,   was    evidently  needed;    but    there  were 
many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  it.      Between  Missouri  and 
California    the   whole    country  was   a   wilderness,   where 
railroad-building  would  be  extremely  expensive.      Private 
persons  could    not    build  without    help    from    Congress; 
and   Congress,  in   1853,  ordered  surveys  to  be  made,  in 
order   to   find   passes   for   the   road   through    the    Rocky 
Mountains.      The  work  was  not   begun  until  nearly  ten 
years  later  (§  783). 

563.  The  Presidential  Election  in  1852  put  an  end  to  the 
Whig  party.      The   Democratic  candidates   for  President 
and  Vice-President  were  Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hamp 
shire,   and  William    R.    King,   of  Alabama.      The  Whig 
candidates  were  General  Winfield  Scott  (§  534),  and  Wil 
liam  A.  Graham,  of  North  Carolina.      The  Free-soil  can 
didates  were  John  P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  and  George 
W.   Julian,  of  Indiana.      The  vote  for  the  Free-soil  can 
didates  was  less  than  in  1848.     Many   of  the   Northern 
Whigs   disliked    the    Fugitive-Slave  Law,  and  refused  to 
vote  because  their  convention  approved  it.      Many  of  the 
Southern  Whigs  had   left  their  party.      The  Whigs  thus 
lost  votes   on   both    sides,    and    Pierce    and    King    were 
elected,  carrying  all  but  four  States.1 

1  There  were  254  electoral  votes  for  Pierce  and  King,  and  42  for  Scott  and 
Graham  (§  295).  Some  attempts  were  made  to  revive  the  Whig  party,  but 
they  did  not  succeed.  It  was  commonly  said  that  the  Whig  party  was  killed 
by  attempting  to  swallow  the  Fugitive- Slave  Law. 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE 


333 


(II)  PIERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION:   1853-7 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE,  N.  H.,  President. 


WM.  R.  KING,  Alabama,  Vice- President. 


(i)   Internal  Affairs. 

564.  Exhibitions. — In    1851,    there   had    been   held   at 
London  a  "World's  Fair,"  the  first  of  the  great  exhibi 
tions  of  arts  and  manufac 
tures    which     have     since 

become  so  common. 
American  inventions  had 
taken  a  high  place  in  it. 
In  1853,  a  similar  exhibi 
tion  was  opened  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  a  large 
structure  of  glass  and  iron, 
on  Reservoir  Square,1  in 
New  York  City. 

565.  Clearing-houses.  — 
The   banking   business    in 
New  York  City  had  by  this 
time  grown  so  large  that 
in    1853   a    clearing-house 
was    opened    there.       Its 
business  is  to  balance  daily 
the  accounts  of  the  different 
banks  with  one  another,  so 

as  to  avoid  the  trouble  of  paying  large  sums  of  money 
back  and  forth.  In  the  clearing-house,  each  bank  ex 
changes  the  checks  it  holds  against  other  banks  for  their 
checks  against  it,  paying  or  receiving  only  the  difference 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE. 


Now  Bryant  Park. 


334  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLA  YE    TERRITORY          [1853 

in  money.  Institutions  of  this  kind  have  since  been  opened 
in  other  cities ;  and  the  business  of  the  New  York  City 
clearing-house  has  grown  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world. 
566.  Roads  and  Bridges. — The  condition  of  the  ordinary 
roads  of  the  country,  though  bad  enough,  was  now  far 
better  than  it  had  been  thirty  years  before ;  and  it  has 
been  improving  ever  since.  The  growth  of  the  railroad 
system  had  forced  the  country  to  attend  to  the  build 
ing  of  bridges,  and  particularly  of  suspension-bridges.  A 
bridge  of  this  kind  had  been  thrown  over  the  Niagara 
River  with  much  difficulty  in  1848.  Since  then  they  had 
increased  in  number;  and  in  1856  the  first  of  them  over 
the  Mississippi  River  was  erected  at  Minneapolis.  The 
American  suspension-bridges  are  now  exceedingly  numer 
ous  and  among  the  most  beautiful  of  their  class.1 


(2)  Foreign  Affairs. 

567.  Naturalization. — A  person  born  and  living  in  a 
country  owes  obedience  to  its  government  and  is  said  to 
be  one  of  its  subjects.  When  he  changes  his  residence 
to  another  country,  and  declares  that  he  chooses  that  for 
his  own  in  future,  he  is  said  to  become  its  subject  by 
naturalization,  and  then  he  ceases  to  owe  obedience  to 
the  country  in  which  he  was  born.  This  right  of  natural 
ization  had  always  been  asserted  by  the  United  States, 
and  had  been  one  of  the  causes  of  the  War  of  1812,  as 
Great  Britain  would  not  admit  that  her  subjects  could 
become  naturalized  in  the  United  States  (§  344).  The 
growing  power  of  the  United  States  now  made  it  possible 
to  support  the  right  effectively. 

1  One  of  the  most  important,  though  not  the  largest,  is  that  over  the  East 
River,  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  finished  in  1883. 


1854]  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  335 

568.  Martin  Koszta  was   an  Austrian  subject  by  birth. 
He  had  headed  a  rebellion  in  Austria,  had  been  defeated, 
and  had  then  taken  steps  to  become  a  naturalized  Ameri 
can  citizen.      In   1853,  the  Austrians  caught  him  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  placed  him  on  board  a  frigate,  claiming  that 
he  was  still  an  Austrian  subject.      Thereupon  a  United 
States  war-vessel    ranged   up  alongside   of  the    Austrian 
vessel,   threatened  to  fire  on  her,  and   compelled  her  to 
give  Koszta  up.      Austria  complained,  but  the  American 
Government  supported  its  officer  and  gave  him  a  medal. 
Since  then,   foreign    governments   have    not  denied   that 
their  subjects  might  become  American  citizens  by  natural 
ization,  and  thus  cease  to  owe  obedience  to  their  former 
governments. 

569.  Japan  had  hitherto  refused  to  have  any  dealings 
with  foreign  nations.      In  1854,  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry, 
with  an  American  fleet,  pushed  his  way  into  Japan,  and 
induced  its  government  to  agree  to  a  commercial  treaty. 
Japan  has  since  gone  on  rapidly  in  the  road  to  an  accept 
ance  of  modern  civilization,  and  is  now  recognized  as  one 
of  the  most  active  and  progressive  of  modern  States. 

570.  Cuba. — Filibustering  expeditions  against  the  Span 
ish  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  were  attempted  during 
this  period.      Their  object  was  to  conquer  Cuba,  and  then 
obtain  its  admission  to  the  Union  as  a  slave  State.      Such 
expeditions  are  against  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
they  had  to  be  begun  secretly.      They  were  all  failures, 
and  some  of  their  leaders  were  executed  by  the  Spanish 
authorities.      The  American  Government  offered  to  buy 
Cuba  from  Spain,  but  Spain  refused  to  sell  it.      In  1854, 
the  three  leading  American  ministers  in   Europe  met  at 
Ostend,   in  Belgium,   and  issued    a    circular,   or   general 
letter.      It   claimed   that   the   possession   of  Cuba  was   a 
necessity  for  the  United  States.     Many  persons  in  Europe 


336  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE    TERRITORY          [1854 

and  America  considered  it  a  threat  to  attack  Cuba,  and 
blamed  the  ministers  for  issuing  it.1 


(3)   Slavery  and  Politics. 

571.  Slavery  had  now  split  the  great  religious  denomi 
nations,  excepting  the  Episcopalians  and  Catholics,  into 
Northern  and  Southern  churches.      It  had  split  the  Whig 
party  into  two  parts  (§  560).      It  had  formed  two  sections 
which  were  every  year  becoming  more  opposed  to  each 
other.      Every  one  could  see  that  there  were  signs  of  ter 
rible   danger  to   the   country,   though    no   one   could  see 
exactly  in  what  quarter  a  rupture  might  first  occur. 

572.  The  American  Party  sprang  up  during  this  period, 
to  take  the  place  of  the  Whig  party;  but  it  lived  only  for 
a  few  years.      Its  members  were  sworn  not  to  tell  any 
thing  of  its  proceedings,   and  they  were  therefore  often 
called  "Know  Nothings."      The  party  tried  to  bring  in 
a    new   question,    instead   of   the   dangerous   question   of 
slavery.      Troubles  in  Europe  had  enormously  increased 
the  immigration  into  the  United  States,  and  many  of  the 
immigrants    were    very   ignorant    men.      The    American 
party  wished  to  prevent  foreign-born  citizens  from  hold 
ing  office,  and  from  voting,  except  after  a  very  long  resi 
dence.      It  came  to  an  end   soon   after    the   Presidential 
election  of  1856  (§  582). 

573.  New  Territories. — The  Democratic  party  had  been 
kept  together  in    1850  by  the  agreement  that  Congress 
should  neither  forbid  nor  permit  slavery  in  the  new  Terri 
tories  of  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  but  should   leave  their 
people  to  settle  the  matter  (§555).      In  1854,  it  was  pro- 

1  William  Walker,  a  Southerner,  began  his  filibustering  expeditions  against 
Central  America  during  this  period.  They  continued  until  1860,  when  he 
was  captured  and  shot  by  a  Central  American  government. 


1854]  KANSAS-NEBRASKA  ACT  337 

posed  to  form  Territorial  governments  for  Kansas  and 
Nebraska.  Congress  had  * '  forever  ' '  forbidden  slavery  in 
the  region  in  1 820,  when  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  slave 
State  (§  418).  But  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  and 
other  new  Democratic  leaders,  thought  that  the  Compro 
mise  of  1850  had  changed  all  this,  and  that  Congress  was 
bound  to  act  in  the  case  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  as  it  had 
done  in  the  case  of  Utah  and  New  Mexico. 

574.  Kansas-Nebraska  Act. — Douglas  therefore  put  into 
the  bill  a  declaration  that  Congress  had  had  no  right  to 
forbid  slavery  in  this  region  in    1820;  that  slavery  was 
now  neither  forbidden  nor  allowed  in  these  Territories; 
and  that  their  people  were  to  settle  the  matter.      In  this 
form  the   Kansas-Nebraska  Act  was  passed,  by  the  votes 
of   Northern    and    Southern     Democrats     and     Southern 
Whigs,  and  became  law  in   1854.      It  proved  to  be  the 
coming  source   of  danger,   and   there  was    thereafter  no 
more  peace  on  the  subject  of  slavery ;  for  it  had  reopened 
a  question  which  had  once  been  settled,  but  which  could 
not  now  be  settled  again  peaceably. 

575.  In  the  North  there  was  more  excitement  and  anger 
than  had  been  caused  by  any  previous  action  of  Congress. 
People  were  reminded  that  slavery  had  been  forbidden  in 
Kansas  and   Nebraska  as  part  of  a  bargain  between  the 
North    and  the  South,    and    it  was  said  that  the    South, 
having  received   its  share   in   the  admission  of  Missouri, 
had    now   broken    its   agreement    as   to   the   rest   of  the 
Louisiana  purchase.      It  soon  came  to  be  believed  that 
Southerners  cared  less  for  the  Union,  or  for  anything  else, 
than  they  did  for  the  extension  of  slavery ;  and  the  North 
began  to  unite  against  them. 

576.  The  Republican  Party.— At  the  first  election   of 
Congressmen  after  the  passage  of  the   Kansas-Nebraska 
Act,   every  one  in  the  North  who  was    opposed  to  the 


338  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE   TERRITORY         [1854 

extension  of  slavery,  whether  he  had  been  called  a 
Democrat,  a  Whig,  a  Free-soiler,  or  an  American, 
dropped  his  former  party  and  voted  for  candidates  opposed 
to  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act.  At  first  they  were  called 
' '  Anti-Nebraska  Men, ' '  and  under  this  name  they  elected, 
in  the  autumn  of  1854,  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  for  the  next  Congress.  Before  the  new  Con 
gress  met,  they  had  taken  the  name  of  the  Republican 
party,  which  is  still  retained.  The  membership  of  the 
new  party  was  mainly  of  former  Northern  Whigs,  with  a 
smaller  number  of  former  Democrats.  It  was  confined 
to  the  Northern  States,  and  had  no  members  in  Southern 
States,  except  in  Missouri,  among  the  German  settlers, 
and  in  western  Virginia,  which  had  been  largely  settled 
by  Ohio  people. 

577.  In  the  South  the  feeling  was  as  much  astonishment 
as  anger.      People  there  were  so  accustomed  to  slavery 
that  they  could  see  no  reason  for  this  excitement  in  the 
North;  and  they  concluded  that  it  had  been  contrived  by 
new  men,   who  wanted  only  to   get  into  power.      They 
felt   that   the   South    was   attacked   without   reason ;    and 
Southerners  of  all  parties  began  to  unite  against  the  North 
as  against  a  common  enemy. 

578.  The  Struggle  for  Kansas  began  at  once.     Money 
was  raised  in  the  North  to  fit  out  parties  of  immigrants, 
who  were  to  settle  Kansas  and  by  their  votes  make  it  first 
a  free  Territory  and  finally  a  free  State.      In  the  same 
way,    Southern  parties  were   fitted   out  to  take  slaves  to 
Kansas,  and  by  their  votes  to  make  it  first  a  slave  Terri 
tory  and   finally  a  slave   State.      In   such   a   struggle  the 
South  was  at  a  disadvantage,  for  no  man  liked  to  take  to 
Kansas  his  slaves,  which  had  cost  him  money,  under  the 
risk  of  losing  both  slaves  and  money  if  his  side  should  be 
beaten.      So  it  happened  that  the  Southern  parties  were 


1856]  THE  CONFLICT  IN  KANSAS  339 

chiefly  young  men,  who  went  to  Kansas  for  excitement's 
sake;  while  the  Northern  parties  were  bona fide  settlers, 
who  went  to  stay  and  to  make  homes  for  themselves  and 
their  children.  As  very  few  of  the  Southern  parties  took 
slaves  with  them,  one  might  suppose  that  there  was  little 
or  no  reason  for  quarrel  between  the  settlers  from  the  two 
sections.  Quarrels  arose  because  the  settlers  from  each 
section  voted  together  for  one  object,  claimed  to  have 
won  a  victory,  and  attempted  to  force  the  other  party  to 
submit.  In  the  end,  the  Northern  immigrants  completely 
outnumbered  their  opponents,  and  made  Kansas  a  free 
State  after  a  five  years'  struggle. 

579.  The  Conflict  in  Kansas. — The  road  to  Kansas  from 
the  Northern  States  went  across  the  slave  State  of 
Missouri.  The  people  of  western  Missouri  refused  to 
allow  free-State  parties  to  cross  their  State  into  Kansas, 
and  forced  them  to  turn  back.  When  the  first  election- 
day  came,  parties  of  men  from  Missouri  moved  into 
Kansas,  voted,  and  made  it  a  slave  Territory.  Then  the 
free-State  parties  took  the  roundabout  road  through  Iowa, 
entering  Kansas  from  the  north ;  and  the  struggle  in  the 
Territory  itself  began.  The  Southern  settlers  formed  one 
government,  the  Northern  settlers  formed  another;  and 
each  considered  the  opposite  party  rebels  against  a  lawful 
government.  As  each  side  attempted  to  put  its  laws  into 
execution,  and  was  resisted  by  force,  the  struggle  soon 
became  an  open  war.  Men  were  shot;  parties  of  immi 
grants  were  robbed  and  dispersed ;  and  towns  were 
plundered  and  burned.  Small  armies,  with  cannon,  were 
formed  on  both  sides ;  and  the  newspapers  all  over  the 
country  were  filled  with  news  from  Kansas.  The  Presi 
dent  sent  out  one  governor  after  another;  but  none  of 
them  could  do  much  to  keep  order  until  the  free-State 
settlers  became  so  numerous  that  their  opponents  gave  up 


340 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE    TERRITORY 


[1856 


the  struggle.      This  did  not  take  place  until  after  the  end 
of  this  administration,  about  1858. 

580.  The  Debates  in  Congress  were  of  the  angriest  sort. 
Duels   were    threatened,    and    many   members    regularly 
carried    pistols    or   knives,    expecting  to  be    attacked   by 
some  of  their  opponents.      The   Republicans  usually  con 
trolled  the  House  of  Representatives,  while  the  Democrats 
controlled  the  Senate;  and  many  laws  failed  to  be  passed, 
for  want  of  agreement  between  the  two  branches  of  Con 
gress.     Kansas  had  formed  a  State  constitution,  forbidding 
slavery,  and  applied  for  admission,  with  the  support  of  the 
Republicans ;  but  the  Senate  refused  to  admit  it. 

581.  Assault  on  Sumner. — Sumner  was  one  of  the  most 
effective  Republican  speakers  in  Congress ;  and  many  of 

his  speeches  were  very 
unpleasant  to  Southern 
members.  In  1856,  he 
made  a  violent  speech  in 
the  Senate  which  reflected 
severely  upon  one  of  the 
South  Carolina  Senators. 
Thereupon  the  Senator's 
nephew,  Preston  S. 
Brooks,  a  South  Carolina 
representative,  entered 
the  Senate  chamber,  at 
tacked  Sumner  unex 
pectedly,  and  beat  him 
with  a  cane  so  cruelly  that 
This  scandalous  affair  added 

fuel  to  the  flame,  for  it  shocked  the   North,  while  it  was 

not  disapproved  at  the  South. 

582.  The  Presidential  Election  in   1856  was  remarkable 
for   the   sudden   increase   of  the  new  Republican    party. 


CHARLES  SUMNER. 


his   life  was  despaired  of. 


1856]  THE  ELECTION  OF  1836  34* 

The  Democratic  candidates  were  James  Buchanan  and 
John  C.  Breckinridge.  The  Republican  candidates  were 
John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  and  William  L.  Dayton, 
of  New  Jersey.  The  American,  or  "Know-Nothing," 
candidates  were  ex-President  Fillmore  and  Andrew  J. 
Donelson,  of  Tennessee.  One  State  (Maryland)  voted 
for  the  American  candidates;  eleven  of  the  free  States 
voted  for  the  Republican  candidates ;  and  Buchanan  and 
Breckinridge  received  the  votes  of  the  remaining  nineteen 
States,  and  were  elected.1 

583.  The  Result  of  the  Election  was  anything  but  pleas 
ant  to  the  South.      Up  to  this  time,  no  open  opponent  of 
slavery  had  ever  received  the  vote  of  any  State  in  a  presi 
dential  election :   now  an  antislavery  party,  not  yet  two 
years  old,  had  carried  nearly  all  the  free  States,  and  had 
come    dangerously  near    electing    its    candidates.      It    is 
quite  certain  that  secession  would  not  have  taken  place, 
even  if  Fremont  and  Dayton  had  been  elected,  for  the 
South  was   not   ready  for   it.      But   there  was   already  a 
strong  party  of  secessionists  in  the  South   (§  611);    and 
they  spent  the  next  four  years  in  trying  to  prepare  the 
South  for  secession  in    1860,   if  the   Republicans  should 
then  carry  all  the  free  States  and  elect  their  candidates. 

584.  The  Leading  Events  of  the  administrations  of  Tay 
lor,  Fillmore,  and  Pierce  are  as  follows: 

1850:  Death  of  Taylor,  and  succession  of  Fillmore §  557 

Compromise  of  1850 555 

Admission  of  California 555 

Fugitive-Slave  Law  passed 55^ 

1853  :  Pacific  Railroad  surveys  ordered 562 

Crystal  Palace  Exhibition 5^4 

The  Koszta  case 568 

1  There  were  296  electoral  votes:   of  these,   Buchanan  and  Breckinridge 
received  174,  Fremont  and  Dayton  114,  and  Fillmore  and  Donelson  8. 


342  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  SLAVE   TERRITORY          [1856 

1854 :  The  Japan  treaty §  569 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act 574 

1855  :  Rise  of  the  Republican  party 576 

The  struggle  in  Kansas  begun 578 

1856  :  Assault  on  Sumner 581 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

2.  Personal-liberty  laws. 

3.  Early  railroads  to  the  West. 

4.  Emigrant-aid  societies. 

5.  John  Brown  in  Kansas. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES.  —  MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  important 
extracts  relating  to  the  Compromise  of  1850  (Nos.  78-83)  and 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  (Nos.  85-88),  and  the  text  of  the 
Ostend  manifesto  (No.  89). 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — To  the  larger  comprehensive  works 
is  now  to  be  added  Rhodes' s  History  of  the  United  States  from 
the  Compromise  of  1850.  General  works  of  importance,  besides 
those  previously  mentioned,  are  Julian's  Joshua  R.  Giddings, 
Birney's  James  G.  Birney  and  his  Times,  Coleman's  John  J. 
Criitenden,  Hart's  Salmon  P.  Chase,  C.  F.  Adams's  Richard  H. 
Dana,  Wise's  Seven  Decades  of  the  Union,  Sargent's  Public  Men 
and  Events,  and  the  writings  and  speeches  of  Sumner,  Seward, 
and  Chase.  Important  aspects  of  the  slavery  struggle  are  also 
set  forth  in  McDougall's  Fugitive  Slaves,  Kurd's  Law  of  Free 
dom  and  Bondage,  Pike's  First  Blows  of  the  Civil  War,  Sanborn's 
John  Brown,  Spring's  Kansas,  Thayer's  Kansas  Crusade,  Elaine's 
Tiventy  Years  of  Congress,  May's  Recollections  of  the  Antislavery 
Conflict,  and  J.  F.  Clarke's  Antislavery  Days. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — H.  B.  Stowe's  The  Ministers 
Wooing;  G.  W.  Curtis' s  Potiphar  Papers  and  Prue  and  I;  Lucy 
Larcom's  A  New  England  Girlhood;  Tincker's  House  of  Yorke. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


THE   EVE    OF   THE    CIVIL   WAR 

BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION:   1857-61 

JAMES  BUCHANAN,  Pa.,  President.        JOHN  C.  BRECKINRIDGE,  Ky.,  Vice- President. 

(i)   Internal  Affairs. 

585.  A  Financial  Panic  occurred  in  1857,  brought  on  in 
part  by  too  rapid  building  of  railroads  in  places  where 
they  did  not  pay  ex 
penses.  Railroads  had 
been  built  in  parts  of  the 
country  where  there  were 
but  few  inhabitants,  but 
where  it  was  hoped  that 
the  railroads  would  bring 
settlers.  The  settlers 
did  not  come  rapidly,  and 
the  railroads  were  oper 
ated  at  a  loss.  Men  who 
needed  the  money  which 
they  had  put  into  the  rail 
roads  began  to  offer  their 
shares  at  lower  prices. 
As  prices  fell,  others  be 
came  frightened  and  tried 
to  sell ;  and,  just  as  in 
1837  (§  485),  a  panic 
ensued.  It  probably 
caused  more  loss  than  in 


JAMES  BUCHANAN. 


837,  but  the  country  was  now 


so  much  richer  that  the  loss  was  less  severely  felt. 


343 


344  THE  EVE   OF   THE   CIVIL    WAR  [1857 

586.  The  Mormons  (§  495)  had  by  this  time  settled  in 
Utah,  around  Salt  Lake  City.      Here  they  became  more 
troublesome  than  ever,  and  disobeyed  the  laws  made  for 
them  by  Congress.      In  1857,  when  the  President  sent  a 
new  governor  to  Utah,  he  sent  also  a  body  of  troops  to 
enforce  obedience.      The  Mormons  made  ready  for  resist 
ance,   and  succeeded  in  keeping   the  troops   out   on  the 
plains   through   the  winter.      But   in  the  spring  of  1858 
they  submitted,  and  the  troops  entered  Salt  Lake  City. 
The    Mormons,   however,    continued  to   be  troublesome. 
They  had  greatly  increased  in  number,  and  Congress  had 
not  succeeded  in  stopping  their  illegal  marriages. 

587.  New  States. — Minnesota,  formed  from  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1858.      Part  of  the 
former  Oregon  country  was  admitted  as  a  State  under  the 
name  of  Oregon  in  1859.     Kansas,  after  repeated  applica 
tions  and  refusals,  was  admitted  as  a  State,  just  at  the  end 
of  this  administration    (1861),   when    Southern    Senators 
had  begun  to  withdraw  (§  616). 

588.  The  Census  of  1860. — The  population  of  the  United 
States,  by  the  census  of  1 860,  was  3 1 ,443, 32 1 ,  an  increase 
of  over  8,000,000  in  ten  years.      This  was  the  point  at 
which  the  population   of  the   United   States,   which  had 
been  nothing  260  years  before,  at  last  passed  that  of  the 
mother  country;   for  the  population  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  was  but  29,000,000  in  1861.      But  the  increase  of 
population  in  the  United  States  had  now  become  startling. 
Each  new  census  showed  an  increase  of  about  one  third ; 
and    these    leaps    grew    longer    as    the   population   grew 
larger.1     The  census  also  showed  a  wonderful  prosperity. 
Railroads  had  increased  from  nothing  in  1830  to  a  length 
of  31,000  miles,  built  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $1,200,000,000, 

1  From  1790  to  1800  this  one-third  increase  was  but  1,400,000;  from  1850 
to  1860  it  was  8,250,000. 


1858]  GROWTH  OF  THE   COUNTRY  345 

almost  a  clear  increase  of  wealth.  In  merchant-vessels, 
the  country  now  stood  next  to  Great  Britain.  In  agricul 
ture,  the  product  was  far  beyond  that  of  any  other  country. 
The  largest  crop,  cotton,  made  5,000,000  bales  of  400 
pounds  each.  All  the  property  of  the  country  was  now 
roughly  valued  at  $16,000,000,000:  and  yet  this  was 
the  country  on  whose  shores,  260  years  before,  Gosnold 
could  find  nothing  but  sassafras  and  a  few  half-naked 
Indians. 

589.  The  Map  of  the  United  States  had  changed  greatly 
between   1830  and   1860,   particularly  west  of  Pittsburgh 
(§  451).      Texas  and  the  great  Pacific  territory  had  been 
added  to  it,  giving  the  country  an  entirely  new  shape  in 
the  far  West  (§  544).      Even  in  the  East  there  were  large 
manufacturing   cities,    like    Lowell  and   Paterson,    which 
were  not  on  most  of  the  maps  in    1830.      In  the  West, 
there  were  many  such  cases.      In    1830,  the  maps  of  the 
United  States  had  no  such  cities  as  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
or    San    Francisco ;    and   no    such    States    as    Arkansas, 
Michigan,    Florida,  Texas,  Iowa,    Wisconsin,    California, 
Minnesota,  Oregon,  or  Kansas:  all  these  were  the  growth 
of  thirty  years,  aided  by  the  railroad. 

590.  Mineral  Resources. — It  had  now  been  found  that 
coal  was  not  confined  to  two  or  three  States;   that  there 
were  great  beds  of  it  in  most  of  the  new  States ;   and  that 
this  continent  contained  probably  as  much  coal  as  all  the 
rest   of  the  world   together.      This   is   highly  important, 
because  so  much  work  is  done  nowadays  by  machinery, 
which  needs  coal  to  run   it.      Gold  was   not  confined  to 
California:    in    1858,    it   was    found    at    Pike's    Peak,    in 
Colorado ;    and   it  has  been   found  since  in   many  other 
parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  Idaho  to  New  Mexico. 
In  the  same  year  was  found  a  metal  new  to  the  United 
States :    the   Comstock   lode  of  silver   was  discovered   at 


346  THE  EVE  OF  THE  CIVIL    W 'AR  [l859 

Virginia  City,  in  Nevada ; l  and  other  mines  were  soon 
brought  to  light.  Since  then,  it  has  been  found  that  this 
Rocky  Mountain  region  is  rich  in  almost  every  kind  of 
mineral.  In  1859,  wells  sunk  near  Titusville,  in  north 
western  Pennsylvania,  struck  a  vast  underground  bed  of 
petroleum;  and  this  at  once  became  a  new  and  large 
source  of  wealth.  It  seemed  as  if  nature  was  generously 
pouring  wealth  into  the  lap  of  this  fortunate  people. 

591.  Patents, — The  industry  and  acuteness  of  the  people 
made  good  use  of  their  opportunities,  and  were  urged  on 
by  the  patent  system.      Now  that  the  country  had  grown 
so  populous,  a  patent  on  a  useful  invention  might  be  a 
source  of  great  wealth,  for  it  gave  the  inventor  the  profits 
from   his   invention  for   a  number  of  years  all  over   the 
country,  and  also,  by  treaties,  in  foreign  countries.     Thus 
the    attention    of    the    people    was    turned    strongly    to 
inventions ;    the    inventions    made  it    easier    to     produce 
wealth;     and    the    new    wealth    urged  on  further  inven 
tion. 

592.  American  Literature  had  passed  out  of  its  child 
hood,  and  had  grown  into  a  vigorous  life  of  its  own.     The 
writers  who  had  appeared  about   1830  (§  458)  had  come 
to  their  full  powers,   and  an   increasing   number  of  new 
men  were  at  work  with  them.      Of  these  new  men,  it  is 
only  possible  here  to  name  the  historian  Motley,  the  poet 
Lowell,  and  the  philosopher  Emerson.      Much  of  the  in 
tellectual  ability  of  the  country  was  enlisted   in  the  work 
of  writing  for  the  newspapers,  which  now  numbered  over 
4,000,  sending  out  nearly  1,000,000,000   copies   a  year. 
A  single  American   magazine  was   now  issuing  200,000 
copies  a  month. 

1  The  discoverer  of  the  Comstock  lode  is  said  to  have  sold  it  for  a  few 
drinks  of  whiskey  and  a  pony  :  it  has  since  produced  hundreds  of  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  silver. 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL. 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON. 


Ill  ''         ';,••     '•'•'"'  '  "     "   '      '''/'':"  ' 


FRANCIS  PARKMAN. 


JOHN  LOTHROP  MOTLEY. 


(To  face  p.  346.) 


1860]  DOMESTIC  COMFORT  347 

593.  Public  Schools  and  Education. — Public  schools  had 
become  a  great  feature  of  the  new  republic,  and  for  good 
reasons.     Immigrants  were  entering  the  country  in  a  great 
stream,    and   all    of  them   who   were    adult   males    were 
allowed   to  vote   after  a   short  residence.      If  they  were 
ignorant,  it  could   not  be   helped,  and  voting  was  itself 
something  of  an  education  for  them ;   but  it  was  the  busi 
ness  of  the   State  to  take  care  that  the  children  of  these 
immigrants  should  not  grow  up  ignorant.      Thus  a  great 
system  of  public  schools    had  grown   up    since    1830  in 
every  State.      There  were  now  about  1 10,000  of  these  in 
the  whole  country;  and  in  them   an   army  of  5,000,000 
pupils  were  studying  daily  at  State  expense.      In  addition 
to  these  there  were  a  great  number   of  private  schools, 
and  over  200  colleges. 

594.  The   Condition   of   the   Country    was    everywhere 
different  from  its   condition  fifty  years  before.      The  farms 
were  cultivated  far  more  easily  and  profitably  by  improved 
machinery,    worked   by  horses    or  by  steam.      New  fer 
tilizers,  such  as  guano,  were   making  old  farms  produce 
more.      Log-cabins  and  shanties  were  disappearing,  and 
comfortable  houses  were  taking  their  place.      The  houses 
contained  comforts  and  conveniences  which  the  richest  of 
men  could  not  have  bought  fifty  years  before:  gas,  hot-air 
furnaces,   sewing-machines,  and  inventions  of  every  sort 
to  save  labor  or  trouble.      There  were  now  few  villages 
so  small  that  they  were  not  near  a  railroad  or  a  telegraph, 
by  which  their  people  could  go  or  send  easily  and  quickly 
to  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

595.  The  Cities  had  increased  in  comforts  as  well  as  in 
population.      The  dwellings  had  grown  larger,  the  stores 
richer,   and  the  streets   finer;    and  the    cities  themselves 
had  taken  very  much  the  appearance  which  they  still  have, 
although  they  have  since  increased  greatly  in   size,  and 


34^  THE  EVE   OF   THE  CIVIL    W 'AR  [1860 

the  invention  of  elevators  has  caused  the  erection  of  very 
much  loftier  buildings  than  were  possible  in  1860.  Great 
water-works  brought  pure  water  from  a  distance,  and  dis 
tributed  it  through  the  cities.  Great  parks  were  opened, 
as  breathing-places  for  the  cities:  New  York  City  had  just 
opened  the  finest  of  these,  Central  Park,  and  other  cities 
were  at  work  in  the  same  direction.  Public  libraries,  like 
the  Astor  Library  in  New  York  City,  were  appearing. 
Thirty  years  before,  the  ' '  watchmen  ' '  had  walked  the 
streets  at  night  with  canes  and  lanterns,  and  there  were 
hardly  any  arrangements  to  punish  them  for  going  to  sleep 
or  neglecting  their  duties.  Now  the  new  police  system 
had  been  introduced,  with  officers  to  manage  it  and  punish 
necrlect  or  carelessness  in  the  men.1 


(2)    Slavery  and  Politics. 

596,  The  South  had  not  shared  equally  with  the  North 
in  the  prosperity  of  which  the  census  of  1860  was  so 
pleasant  a  picture.  Plenty  of  money  came  into  the  South 
every  year,  for  its  cotton-crop  of  1 860  sold  for  about  $250,- 
000,000;  but  the  money  seemed  to  do  less  good.  It  did 
not  build  up  manufactures,  railroads,  colleges,  schools, 
libraries,  or  the  other  signs  of  growth,  as  in  the  North. 
Land  was  worth  much  less  at  the  South  than  at  the 
North.  All  the  commerce  was  in  Northern  vessels;  and 
Charleston,  which  in  1800  was  one  of  the  busiest  seaports 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  now  did  hardly  any  business  of 
its  own.  It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  Southern 
people  would  be  satisfied  with  such  a  state  of  affairs :  on 
the  contrary,  they  were  exceedingly  dissatisfied,  and 

1  This  city  police  system  is  an  English  idea.  It  was  introduced  in 
London  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1829;  and  for  this  reason  the  policemen  were 
at  first  often  called  "peelers." 


i86o] 


THE  EFFECTS   OF  SLAVERY 


349 


sought  long  for  the  cause  of  their  backwardness,  and  the 
remedy. 

597.  The  Effects  of  Slavery. — The  chief  cause  is  now 
seen  by  every  one  to  have  been  negro  slavery,  though  the 
South  could  not  see  that  in  1 860. 
Slaves  worked  only  because 
they  were  made  to  do  so ;  they 
worked  slowly,  carelessly,  and 
stupidly,  and  were  fit  for  little 
better  than  to  hoe  cotton.  In 
factories  or  on  railroads  they 
were  of  slight  use.  The  rich 
whites  did  not  need  to  work ; 
and  the  poor  whites  did  not  wish 
to  work,  because  they  had  grown 
up  in  the  belief  that  work  was  a 
sign  of  slavery.  Here  was  the 
real  reason  for  the  backward 
ness  of  the  South,  compared 
with  the  North.  In  the  North 
there  was  a  general  race  for 
work,  and  everything  was  in  active  motion.  In  the  South 
there  was  no  great  number  of  persons  who  really  wanted 
to  work,  and  everything  stood  still. 

598.  The  Territories. — The  South,  in  1860,  could  only 
see  that  everything  was  going  wrong.  It  was  growing 
poorer  as  the  North  grew  richer,  and  weaker  as  the  North 
grew  stronger.  Five  new  free  States  had  been  admitted 
since  Texas,  the  last  slave  State,  had  entered  the  Union ; 
a  sixth,  Kansas,  was  demanding  admission;  and  others 
were  evidently  coming  soon.  Every  new  free  State  made 
the  South  less  influential  in  both  branches  of  Congress ; 
and,  as  States  are  formed  from  Territories,  the  South 
came  to  believe  that  any  refusal  to  allow  slavery  in  the 


KING  COTTON. 


35°  THE  EVE  OF   THE   CIVIL    WAR  [1857 

Territories  was  intended  to  make  the  South  less  important 
still.. 

599.  The   Supreme    Court  of  the  United   States   is   the 
body  to  which  is  given  the  power  to  decide  whether  the 
laws   passed   by  Congress  are    such    as  the    Constitution 
allows  Congress  to  pass.      If  it  decides  that  the  law  in 
question  was  not  permitted  by  the  Constitution,  the  law 
is  said  to  be  unconstitutional,  and  need  not  be  obeyed, 
for  the  other  courts  will  not  punish  those  who  disobey  it. 
In  1820,  Congress  had  forbidden  slavery  in  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  outside  of  Missouri  (§  418) ;  but  for  nearly  forty 
years  no  case  had  required  the  Supreme  Court  to  decide 
whether    this    law    of    1820    was    constitutional    or    not. 
Finally,  one  Dred  Scott,  a  Missouri  slave,  who  had  been 
taken  by  his  owner  into  the  territory  in  which  slavery  had 
been  forbidden,   brought  suit  to  be  declared  free.      The 
case  came  at  last  before    the  Supreme    Court,  ^and  was 
decided  in  1857. 

600.  The  Dred   Scott  Decision  sustained    the   Southern 
view  of  slavery  in  the  Territories.      The  Supreme  Court 
decided  that   negro   slaves  were    not   considered  by  the 
Constitution  as  persons,  but  as  property;  that  the  object 
of  the  Constitution  was  to  protect  property ;  that  a  slave 
owner  had  as  much  right  to  take  his  slaves  as  to  take  his 
cattle  from  one  State  to  another,  or  to  the  Territories ; 
and  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  forbid  slavery  in  the 
Territories. 

601.  Effects  of  the  Decision. — The  Dred  Scott  decision 
was  not  to  end  the  matter,  for  the  North  refused  to  accept 
it.      It  was  believed  there  that  negro  slaves  were  consid 
ered  by  the  Constitution  as  ' '  persons  held  to  labor, ' '  and 
not  as   property;    and  that  they  were  property  only  by 
State  law.      The  only  effects  of  the  decision  were  to  make 
the    South  more  certain  that  it  was  right,  and  to  make 


1859]  JOHN  BROWS  RAID  351 

the  North    exceedingly  angry  with    the  Supreme    Court 
itself. 

602.  The  Democratic  Party,  up  to  this  time,  had  gen 
erally  controlled  the  Union,  and  the  South  had  generally 
controlled    the    Democratic    party.       Now    most    of  the 
Northern  Democrats  began  to  hold  back.      If  they  did  as  • 
Southern  Democrats  wished  them  to  do,  and  accepted  the 
Dred  Scott  decision,  they  could  not  expect  to  carry  any 
more  elections  in  the  North.      Some  of  them  joined  the 
Republican  party.      Most  of  them,  with  Douglas,  tried  to 
show  that  the  Dred  Scott  decision  did  not  mean  all  that 
the    Southern    Democrats    said  it    meant.      And    so    the 
slavery  question,  which  had  split  almost  everything  else, 
was  now  splitting  the  Democratic  party  also  (§  571). 

603.  The  Fear  of  Negro  Insurrection  was  always  dreadful 
to  a  Southerner,  for  it  meant  the  greatest  of  dangers  to 
his  wife,  his  children,  and  all  that  was  dear  to  him.      No 
general  insurrection  ever  took  place,  but  the  people  of  the 
South  were  always  on  guard  against  it,  day  and  night. 
Fifty  years  before,  when   slavery  was  but  a  little  thing, 
John  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  said  that,  when  the  fire-bell 
rang  at  night  in  a  Southern  city,  every  mother  trembled 
for  her  children.      In   1859,  there  were  4,000,000  slaves 
in  the  South,  and  the  idea  of  a  general  uprising  was  natu 
rally  far  more  frightful. 

604.  John  Brown's  Raid. — John  Brown  had  been  one  of 
the  free-State  leaders  in  the   Kansas    troubles,   and  had 
grown   to  have  a  religious  hatred  of  slavery.      In    1859, 
with  a  few  associates,   he   seized   the   town   of  Harper's 
Ferry,  which  contained  the  United   States  arsenal.      He 
intended  to  carry  the  arms  off  to  the  mountains  near  by, 
and  use  them  to  arm  the  slaves.      The  telegraph  sent  the 
news  through  the  South,  and  for  a  few  days  a  wild  excite 
ment  followed.      Regular  troops  and  Maryland  and  Vir- 


35 2  THE  EVE  OF   THE   CIVIL    IVAR  [1860 

ginia  militia  soon  captured  or  shot  the  party;  and  Brown 
himself,  with  the  survivors,  was  hanged  by  the  State  of 
Virginia.  But  the  South  had  been  too  much  startled  to 
be  easily  quieted ;  and  there  was  a  strong  feeling  of  anger 
that  the  "  raid  "  should  have  been  planned  in  the  North. 


(3)   Sectional  Division. 

605.  Sectional  Division. — Slavery  had  by  this  time  set 
the   two   sections,    North  and  South,   completely  against 
one  another.      It  had  arrayed  them  in  successive  conflicts 
with  one  another  until  there  seemed  to  be  no  escape  from 
the  last  and  worst  of  conflicts.      Men  have  tried  to  find 
explanations  of  this  opposition  in  differences  of  climate, 
character,  and  blood ;  but  there  is  not  one  of  these  cases 
of  opposition  which  is  not  more  easily  explained  by  the 
treacherous   influences   of  slavery.      If   Southern    leaders 
opposed  a  protective  tariff  (§  436),  it  was  rather  because 
slavery  prevented  manufactures  in  the  South  than  because 
they  were  really  fond  of  free  trade.      If  they  supported 
State  sovereignty  eagerly  (§475),  it  was  because  slavery 
was  protected  by  State  laws  and  power. 

606,  The   Feeling   in  the   South  in   1860  was   that  the 
North  had  not  behaved  in  a  kindly  manner.      The  com 
plaints  were  that  nearly  all  the  free  States  had  voted  for 
candidates  of  their  own  at  the  last  election ;  that  they  had 
resisted  the  Fugitive-Slave  Law ;  that  they  had  tried  to 
abolish  slavery  in  the  Territories ;  that  they  had  begun  a 
struggle  with  the   South  for  the  control  of  Kansas ;   that 
they  had  refused  to  accept  the  Dred  Scott  decision ;  and 
that  they  had  sent  John  Brown  on  his  raid  against  the 
South.      Much  of  this  wras  unjust,  though  part  of  it  was 
true,  for  the  whole  current  of  events,  and  the  Northern 


1860]  THE  FEELING  IN   THE  NORTH  353 

current  of  feeling,  were  running  hard  against  slavery, 
which  the  South  defended.  But  it  was  not  yet  believed 
in  the  South  that  these  complaints  were  enough  to  justify 
war. 

607,  The  Feeling  in  the  North.  -People  in   the  North 
were  generally  too  busy  to  lay  any  plans  against  slavery. 
The  Abolitionists  (§462)  had  long  desired  that  the  slave- 
holding  States  should  secede  and  rid  the  country  of  the 
guilt  of  slavery;  but  the  Abolitionists  were  still  few   in 
number.      The  great  mass   of   the  Northern  people  had 
gradually  come  to  believe  that  the  South  liked  slavery 
altogether  too  well ;   but  they  were  perfectly  willing  to 
leave  the  Southern  States  to  regulate  the  matter  for  them 
selves.      Their    principal    complaint    had    been  that    the 
solemn  agreement,  called  the  Missouri  Compromise,  had 
been  broken  (§  574);  but  this  had  failed  to  carry  slavery 
into  the  Territories,  for  Kansas  \vas  now  practically  a  free 
State.     The  only  remaining  grievance  was  the  Dred  Scott 
decision ;    and  if  that  was   to  be  carried  into  effect,  Con 
gress  was  to  protect  slavery  in  the  Territories.      This  was 
what  most  of  the  Southern  leaders  now  demanded,  and 
what  the  Northern  people  would  certainly  never  consent 
to  do. 

608.  Parties  in  1860. — The  Democratic  party,  in  1860, 
split  into  a  Northern  and   a  Southern  section;    and   the 
Republican   party  and   the  former   American   party   also 
made  nominations.      In  this  election  there  were  thus  at 
work  four    parties.       The    Republican    party    nominated 
Abraham    Lincoln    (§  620),    and    Hannibal    Hamlin,   of 
Maine,   for  President  and  Vice-President.      Their   ' '  plat 
form,"  or  declaration  of  principles,  declared  that  it  was 
the  right  and   the  duty  of  Congress  to  forbid  slavery  in 
the    Territories.       The    Southern    Democrats    nominated 
John  C.  Breckinridge  and  Joseph  Lane,  of  Oregon.    Their 


354  THE  EVE   OF  THE  CIVIL    IV AR  [1860 

platform  declared  that  it  was  the  right  and  the  duty  of 
Congress  to  protect  slavery  in  the  Territories,  whenever 
a  slave-owner  took  his  slaves  thither.  The  Northern 
Democrats  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois, 
and  Herschel  V.  Johnson,  of  Georgia.  Their  platform 
declared  that  they  still  believed  that  the  people  of  each 
Territory  ought  to  control  the  matter  of  slavery  in  that 
Territory;  but  that  they  were  willing  to  submit  to  the 
decision  of  the  Supreme  Court.  The  American  party 
nominated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  and  Edward  Everett, 
of  Massachusetts.  Their  platform  declared  that  they 
wished  only  for  "the  Constitution,  the  Union,  and  the 
enforcement  of  the  laws."  This  was  not  intended  to 
mean  much,  except  that  its  Southern  supporters  did  not 
wish  to  go  to  war  in  defence  of  slavery  in  the  Terri 
tories,  and  wanted  the  slavery  question  dropped  out  of 
politics. 

609.  The  Presidential  Election  in  1 860  resulted  in  the 
success  of  the  Republicans.  No  candidates  had  a  majority 
of  the  popular  vote;  but  Lincoln  and  Hamlin,  who  had 
received  the  largest  popular  vote,  received  a  majority  of 
the  electoral  votes  also,  and  were  elected.1 


(4)   Secession. 

610,    South   Carolina    seems    to    have    been    the    only 
Southern   State  which  was  really  anxious  to  escape  from 

1  Lincoln  and  Hamlin  received  1 80  electoral  votes;  Breckinridge  and 
Lane,  72;  Bell  and  Everett,  39;  and  Douglas  and  Johnson,  12.  The  popu 
lar  vote  for  Douglas  was  next  largest  to  that  for  Lincoln,  but  he  carried  only 
Missouri  and  three  electoral  votes  in  New  Jersey.  Lincoln  received  all  the 
electoral  votes  of  the  free  States,  except  those  of  New  Jersey,  which  were 
cast  for  Douglas.  Bell  carried  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee;  and 
Breckinridge  all  the  other  slave  States  except  those  three  and  Missouri. 


I  i     LOYAL 

[ I  EARLY  SECESSION 

^   LATER  SECESSION 


ifle     92    West  from     87     Greenwich      82 


tr  *  ' 

MAP  OV  THE 

AREAS  OE>  SECESSION 

Scale  of  Miles 


tuQe"West      15    from  Washington        10 


i86o] 


THE  SECESSIONISTS 


355 


the  Union.  As  soon  as  Lincoln's  election  was  made 
certain,  this  State  called  a  State  convention,  which  passed 
an  "  ordinance  of  secession, "  December  20,  1860.  It 


swift!® 


SECESSION  HALL. 

declared  that  the  Union  between  South  Carolina  and 
other  States,  under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  was  at  an  end ;  and  that  South  Carolina  was 
now  independent.  The  State  then  made  ready  for  war. 

611,  The  Secessionists — Secession  was  considered  a 
right  of  the  States  by  most  of  the  Southern  States;  but 
in  other  States  than  South  Carolina  the 
people  do  not  seem  to  have  wished  to  leave 
the  Union.  They  did  not  wish  to  secede, 
though  they  believed  in  their  right  to  do 
so.  But  there  was  a  class  of  secessionists 
in  every  Southern  State  who  wished  to  try 
it  at  once,  for  they  knew  that  in  a  few  years 
the  North  would  be  so  much  stronger  that 
it  would  be  altogether  impossible  to  secede, 
and  the  right  of  secession  would  be  gone  forever.  They 
were  not  a  majority,  but  were  active  and  influential. 


SECESSION  COCKAD 


356  THE  EVE   OF   THE   CIVIL    WAR  [1860 

612.  Arguments  for  Secession.— In  other  States  than 
South  Carolina  the  secessionists  usually  urged  two  argu 
ments  for  secession.  The  first  was  that  it  would  be  dis- 


JEFFERSON  DAVIS. 


graceful  to  leave  South  Carolina  to  stand  alone,  and  that 
the  other  slave  States  ought  to  support  her.  Their  second 
and  stronger  argument  was  that  they  did  not  intend  to 
leave  the  Union  altogether,  but  that  they  could  ' '  make 


1861]  THE  CONFEDERATE  STATES  357 

better  terms  out  of  the  Union  than  in  it. ' '  They  argued 
that  the  North  was  growing  very  strong  and  very  much 
opposed  to  slavery  and  to  the  South ;  that  now  was  the 
time  to  secede  and  compel  the  North  to  give  security 
for  future  good  behavior;  and  that  then  all  the  States 
could  come  quietly  and  kindly  back  to  the  Union.  The 
radical  secessionists  never  intended  to  follow  out  any  such 
plan :  they  only  wished  to  persuade  the  voters  to  call  State 
conventions,  whose  action  would  bind  the  State. 

613.  The  Other  Southern  States. — In  six  other  Southern 
States,  the  argument  above  given  induced  a  majority  of 
the  voters  to  elect  State  conventions,  which  passed 
ordinances  of  secession.  In  this  manner  the  States  of 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana 
seceded  in  January,  1861;  and  Texas  did  the  same  in 
February.  This  was  the  first  '  '  area  of  Secession  "  :  it 
now  consisted  of  the  seven  cotton  States,  those  lying  south 
of  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas. 

614.*  The  Confederate  States. — The  secessionists  had 
the  game  in  their  own  hands  when  they  obtained  control 
of  the  State  conventions ;  and  they  at  once  went  on  to  do 
what  they  had  intended  to  do  from  the  beginning.  With 
out  asking  any  permission  from  the  voters,  the  State  con 
ventions  sent  delegates  to  Montgomery,  in  Alabama,  and 
the  delegates  there  formed  a  new  government  under  the 
name  of  the  Confederate  States  of  America.  They  elected 
Jefferson  Davis  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  President  and 
Vice-President.  Jefferson  Davis  was  a  graduate  of  West 
Point,  but  had  left  the  army  and  become  a  cotton-planter 
in  Mississippi.  He  had  commanded  a  Mississippi  rifle- 
regiment  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  subsequently,  as  a 
Democrat,  served  in  the  United  States  Senate  from  1 847 
to  1851,  and  from  1857  to  1861,  and  as  Secretary  of  War 
during  Pierce's  administration,  1853-7.  Alexander  H. 


358 


THE  EVE   OF  THE   CIVIL    WAR 


[1861 


Stephens  had  been  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  from  1843  to   1859,  joining  the  Democratic  party  in 

1850.  He  was  strongly 
opposed  to  secession  in 
1860;  but  when  Georgia 
seceded,  he  "went  with 
his  State."  The  conven 
tion  also  adopted  a  con 
stitution  and  flag,  both 
much  like  those  of  the 
United  States;  and  took 
steps  to  form  an  army  and 
navy. 

615.  The  Doctrine  of 
State  Sovereignty  thus  put 
every  man  in  the  South  on 
the  wrong  side,  and  kept 
him  there.  Southern  voters 
had  given  their  State  con 
ventions  power  to  speak  for 
their  States;  and,  even 
when  the  whole  purpose  of  the  secessionists  became 
plain,  the  voters  felt  bound  to  "follow  their  State" 
(§475)-  Thus  the  voters  of  six  States,  without  having 
a  word  to  say  in  the  matter,  were  made  subjects  of  an 
illegal  government;  and  they  were  thus  fraudulently 
bound  to  defend  it,  though  it  could  only  exist  by  warring 
on  the  United  States. 

616.  Affairs  in  the  South  were  all  in  favor  of  the  seces 
sionists.  Even  before  the  different  States  seceded,  their 
authorities  seized  the  forts,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  ships, 
custom-houses,  mints,  and  other  property  of  the  United 
States.  Wherever  there  were  any  United  States  soldiers, 
they  were  surrounded  and  forced  to  surrender.  As  soon 


1861]  FORT  SUMTER  359 

as  a  State  seceded,  its  citizens  who  were  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States  resigned  their  commissions  and  took 
service,  first  under  the  State,  and  then  under  the  Con 
federacy.  Officers  of  the  army  from  seceding  States 
generally  resigned :  a  few,  like  Scott,  held  to  the  Union. 
Officers  in  the  navy  did  not  so  generally  go  with  their 
States :  some  of  the  foremost  naval  officers  of  the  United 
States,  like  Farragut,  were  Southerners.  Thus,  at  the 
bombardment  of  the  forts  at  Port  Royal,  in  South  Carolina 
(§  636),  two  of  the  gunboat-captains  were  South  Caro 
linians;  and  one  of  them,  Captain  Drayton,  was  firing  on 
his  own  brother,  who  commanded  the  forts.  With  the 
exception  of  Andrew  Johnson,  Senator  from  Tennessee, 
Senators  and  Representatives  from  seceding  States  re 
signed  and  went  home.  Within  sixty  days,  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  was  paralyzed  in  seven  States  of  the 
Union.  Two  of  the  Supreme  Court  justices  were  from 
seceding  States ;  but  they  held  to  the  Union,  and  gave  no 
countenance  to  secession. 

617.  Fort  Sumter.. — In  all  the  South  there  were  saved 
only  the  forts  near  Key  West,  Fort  Pickens  at  Pensacola, 
and  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  harbor.      Early  in  1861, 
the  South  Carolina  authorities  began  to  build  forts  and 
batteries  to  attack  Fort  Sumter ;   and  when  a  steamer ,  the 
Star  of  the  West,  was  sent  to  carry  supplies  to  it,  in  Jan 
uary,  they  fired  on  her  and  drove  her  back.      This  state 
of  affairs  continued  until  the  end  of  Buchanan's  term  of 
office,   in  March,    1861.      Major  Anderson,  commanding 
Fort  Sumter,  was  not  allowed  by  his  government  to  fire 
on  the  forts  around  him,  and  they  did  not  allow  supplies 
to  be  brought  to  him  by  sea. 

618.  The   Federal   Policy. — The  Federal  Government, 
meantime,  did  nothing.      Congress  was  in  session  during 
the   winter;   but  it  spent  its  time  in  talking  about  new 


360  THE  EVE  OF   THE  CIVIL    WAR  [1861 

proposals  for  compromise.  The  President  was  anxious 
to  avoid  doing  anything  except  to  keep  the  peace  until 
the  end  of  his  term.  The  departments  at  Washington 
contained  many  clerks  who  were  secessionists,  and  who 
gave  early  and  useful  information  to  the  Southern  leaders. 
Seven  States  had  wiped  out  the  authority  of  the  govern 
ment  within  their  limits,  and  had  formed  a  new  gov 
ernment  of  their  own.  Between  them  and  the  Federal 
Government  was  a  wall  of  border  States,  not  willing  to 
secede,  and  yet  not  willing  to  see  the  seceding  States 
brought  back  into  the  Union  by  force.  Affairs  were  in 
this  dismal  condition  when  Buchanan's  term  ended,  and 
Lincoln  was  inaugurated,  March  4,  1861. 

619.  The  Leading  Events  of  Buchanan's  administration 
were  as  follows : 

1857:  Dred  Scott  decision §  600 

Panic  of  1857 585 

Mormon  troubles 586 

1858:  Minnesota  admitted 587 

Gold  discovered  in  Colorado 590 

Silver  discovered  in  Nevada 590 

1859:  Oregon  admitted 587 

Petroleum  discovered  in  Pennsylvania 590 

John  Brown's  raid 604 

1860:  Lincoln  elected  President 609 

South  Carolina  secedes  (December  20) 610 

1 86 1 :  Six  other  States  secede 613 

Steamer  Star  of  the  West  fired  on  (January  9) ....  617 

The  Confederate  States  formed  (February  4) 614 

Kansas  admitted . 587 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  admission  of  Kansas. 

2.  Slave  insurrections. 

3.  John  Brown's  raid. 

4.  Lincoln's  opinions  on  slavery. 

5.  Comparative  resources  of  the  North  and  the  South,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  war  between  the  sections. 


1861]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  361 

6.  The  grievances  of  the  South. 

7.  Was  secession  voluntary  ? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — MacDonald's  Select  Documents  gives  a  summary 
of  the  Dred  Scott  decision  (No.  91),  extracts  from  the 
Lecompton  constitution  (No.  92),  the  three  important  compro 
mise  propositions  (Nos.  93,  95,  and  96),  the  South  Carolina 
ordinance  of  secession  (No.  94),  and  the  constitution  of  the 
Confederate  States  (No.  97).  Cooper's  American  Politics, 
bk.  i.,  gives  many  documents  relating  to  slavery  and  secession. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS.  —  The  principal  authorities  are  the 
same  as  in  Chap.  XVII.,  with  the  addition,  for  the  Southern 
side,  of  Helper's  Impending  Crisis,  Stephens' s  War  between  the 
States,  Jefferson  Davis 's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Govern 
ment,  and  Pollard's  Lost  Cause.  The  American  Annual  Cyclo 
pedia  for  1 86 1  is  especially  valuable  for  reference. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Longfellow's  Poems  on  Slavery; 
Whittier's  Antislavery  Poems;  H.  B.  Stowe's  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin;  T.  N.  Page's  Social  Life  in  Old  Virginia  and  The  Old 
South;  M.  E.  Sea  well's  Children  of  Destiny. 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


\ 


CHAPTER   XIX 
THE   WAR    FOR   THE    UNION 

LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION:  1861-65 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  111.,  President.  HANNIBAL  HAMLIN,  Me.,  Vice-President 

(i)  Events  of  1861. 

620.  Abraham  Lincoln  is  the  central  figure  of  this  period. 
Born  in  Kentucky,  February  12,  1809,  of  poor  parents, 
he  emigrated  with  them  to  Indiana,  and  thence  to  Illinois, 
where  he  found  work  as  a  farm-hand,  rail-splitter,  and 
Mississippi  boatman.  By  hard  work  and  perseverance, 
he  educated  himself,  became  a  lawyer,  and  served  as 
Representative  in  Congress  (Whig),  1847-49.  In  1858, 
he  was  nominated  by  the  Republicans  for  United  States 
Senator  against  Douglas.  A  series  of  joint  debates 
between  the  candidates,  on  the  issues  of  the  campaign, 
attracted  attention  throughout  the  country;  and,  though 
Illinois  was  then  a  Democratic  State,  Douglas,  the  leader 
of  the  Democrats  in  the  North,  barely  escaped  defeat. 
To  the  masses  of  the  voters  outside  of  Illinois,  however, 
Lincoln  was  still  little  known ;  and  when  he  was  elected 
President  there  was  a  very  wide  belief  in  the  North  that 
the  ''rail-splitter"  was  a  reckless  and  dangerous  man. 
In  the  South,  it  was  even  believed  that  he  was  a  mulatto 
(and  Hamlin  a  full-blooded  negro),  elected  as  an  insult 
to  the  South.  It  was  not  until  his  death  that  people 

363 


364 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1861 


began  to  see  that  he  was  one  of  the  wisest,  greatest,  and 
most  kind-hearted  men  of  history,  who  loved  one  section 
as  well  as  he  did  the  other,  and  his  whole  country  more 
than  either. 

621.  The  New  Administration  began  under  every  sort  of 
difficulty.       The    seven     Gulf,    or    cotton,    States    were 
altogether  hostile.      The  slave  States  north  of  them  were 
opposed  to  forcing  the  seceded  States  to  return.      Nobody 
felt  quite  certain  that  even  the  Northern  States  would  go 
to  war  to  preserve  the  Union.      President  Lincoln  and  his 
Cabinet  were  all  new  men,  without  experience  in  manag 
ing  the  Federal  Government;  and  this  general  uncertainty 
added  greatly  to  their  difficulties. 

622.  Fort  Sumter  (§617)  was  almost  ready  to  surrender 
when  Lincoln  became  President,  March  4,  1861,  for  its 
garrison  had  hardly  any  provisions  left.      Early  in  April, 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


FORT  SUMTER  AND  CHARLESTON  HARBOR. 

the  President  ordered  a  fleet  to  leave  New  York  for 
Charleston,  carrying  provisions  for  the  fort.  As  soon  as 
this  became  known,  the  Confederate  batteries  were  ordered 


1861]  WASHINGTON  AND  BALTIMORE  365 

to  attack  the  fort.  After  a  heavy  fire  of  thirty  hours,  the 
ammunition  in  the  fort  was  almost  exhausted,  and  its 
wooden  buildings  were  on  fire ;  and  Major  Anderson  sur 
rendered  the  fort  and  garrison  with  the  honors  of  war 
(April  13).  No  one  was  killed  on  either  side  during  the 
fire;  but  one  Federal  soldier  was  killed,  and  several 


FORT  SUMTER. 


wounded,  by  the  explosion  of  a  gun  with  which  the  garri 
son  was  saluting  the  flag  before  leaving  for  New  York. 
The  fleet  returned  to  the  North,  having  been  unable  to 
give  any  assistance. 

623,  Washington  and  Baltimore — In  the  North  and 
West,  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  roused  an  ex 
citement  such  as  had  not  been  known  there  since  the 
Revolution  against  Great  Britain.  Political  differences 
were  dropped,  and  the  whole  people  was  united  in  support 
of  the  government.  When  the  President  called  for 
75,000  volunteer  soldiers  (April  15),  to  put  down  the 
rebellion,  four  times  as  many  responded.  Money  and 
help  of  every  kind  were  offered  in  great  abundance  by 
States  and  private  persons ;  and  every  effort  was  made  to 
put  the  city  of  Washington,  the  national  capital,  into  a 
condition  of  security.  Washington  was  at  first  a  very 


366  THE   IVAR  FOR   THE   UNION  [1861 

unsafe  place  for  the  government,  for  it  was  so  near  the 
Confederate  States  that  it  was  exposed  to  immediate 
attack.  Soldiers  at  once  began  to  gather  for  its  defence. 
To  reach  it,  they  had  to  pass  through  Baltimore,  where 
the  secessionists  were  then  very  strong.  Here,  in  a 
street-fight  between  a  Massachusetts  regiment  and  the 
mob  which  was  trying  to  stop  its  march,  the  first  blood 
of  the  war  was  shed,  on  April  19,  the  anniversary  of  the 
fight  at  Lexington  (§  181).  Other  regiments  passed  by 
water  from  Havre  de  Grace  on  the  Susquehanna  through 
Annapolis,  and  Washington  was  soon  made  secure. 

624.  In  the  South  the  excitement  was  as  great  as  in  the 
North,  and  the  people  were  now  as  much  united.      Even 
those  who  had  not  wished  to  secede  did  not  believe  that 
the  government  had  any  right  to  force  the  seceding  States 
back  into  the   Union.      When   the  Confederate   Govern 
ment  called  for  35,000  volunteer  soldiers,  several  times 
the  number  offered  themselves. 

625.  Civil  War  had   fairly  begun.      President    Lincoln 
proclaimed  a  blockade  of  the  Southern  ports;  that  is,  he 
forbade  all  vessels  to  enter  or  leave  them,  or  to  engage  in 
commerce   with   them.1      The    Confederate    Government 
then   issued  "letters   of  marque,"  that  is,  permission  to 
private  persons  to  capture  merchant-vessels  belonging  to 
the  United  States ;  and  the  Confederate  Congress  declared 
war  against  the  United  States.      There  was  thus  a  differ 
ence  between  the  parties  to  the  war.      The  Confederate 
States  claimed  to  be  an  independent  nation,  at  war  with 
the  United  States.      The  United  States  Government  re 
fused    to    recognize    the    existence    of    the    Confederate 

1  The  United  States  Government  had  at  first  but  three  vessels  with  which 
to  enforce  the  blockade;  but  others  were  rapidly  bought  or  built,  and  the 
navy  soon  became  very  large  (§  746).  Other  calls  were  made  for  soldiers, 
and  before  July  200,000  men  were  under  arms. 


1861]  THE  BORDER  STATES  367 

Government,  or  to  consider  its  people  as  anything  else 
than  rebellious  citizens. 

626,  The  Border  States,  between    the  Gulf  States  and 
the  free  States,  did  not  desire  to  secede;  but  they  gen 
erally  believed  that  the  Gulf  States  had  a  right  to  secede 
if  they  wished  to  do  so,  and  that  the  government  of  the 
United   States  had  no  right  to  force  them  back  into  the 
Union.      When  they  received  President  Lincoln's  call  for 
volunteers  to  force  the  seceding  States  back  into  the  Union, 
the  southern  row  of  border  States,  North  Carolina,  Tennes 
see,  and  Arkansas,  refused  to  obey  it,  seceded,  and  joined 
the  Confederacy.      In  the  Northern  row  of  border  States, 
only  Virginia  seceded.      There  were  many  secessionists 
in    Maryland,    Kentucky,    and   Missouri;    but   the  Union 
men  were  in  the  majority,  and  held  their  States  to  the 
support    of  the    government.       In    Kentucky    the    State 
officers  at  first  tried  to  be  neutral,  I; -it  the  people  forced 
them  to  support  the  government.      In  Missouri  the  State 
officers  were  open  secessionists,  but  the  Union  majority 
of  the  people  rose  in  arms,  and,  after  some  hard  fighting, 
drove  them  out  of  the   State.      In  Delaware  there  were 
hardly  any  secessionists :  but  in  all  the  other  border  States 
there  were  many  persons  who  went  into  the  Confederate 
army.      The  people  of  the  western  part  of  Virginia  refused 
to  recognize  the  secession  of  their  State,  and  later  formed 
a    separate    State,    under     the    name    of  West    Virginia 

(§694). 

627,  Foreign  Nations  generally  considered  it  impossible 
for  the  United  States  to  put  down  so  extensive  a  rebellion, 
and  believed  that  there  would  in  future  be  two  nations 
where  the  United  States  had  been.      They  were  not  yet 
inclined  to  recognize  the  Confederate  States  as  an  inde 
pendent  nation,  for  it  was  known  that  the  United  States 
would  declare  war  against  any  country  which  should  do  so. 


368  THE   IV A  R  FOR    THE  UNION  [1861 

Instead  of  doing  so,  they  recognized  the  Confederate 
States  as  a  belligerent  power,  that  is,  a  power  entitled  to 
make  war  and  have  war- vessels.1  This  gave  Confederate 
cruisers  the  right  to  take  refuge  in  foreign  harbors.  These 
vessels  at  first  escaped  from  Southern  ports  through  the 
blockade,  but  were  not  very  successful.  Little  damage 
was  done  to  American  commerce  until  Confederate  agents 
began  secretly  to  build  swift  vessels  in  Great  Britain 
(§  672). 

628.  The  Confederate  States,  in  June,  1861,  were  eleven 
in   number:    Virginia,    North    Carolina,    South   Carolina, 
Georgia,     Florida,     Alabama,     Mississippi,     Tennessee, 
Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.      As  soon  as  Virginia 
seceded,  their  capital  was   changed  from  Montgomery  to 
Richmond.      Their  troops  poured  into  eastern  Virginia, 
which  was  to  be  the  great  battle-ground  of  the  war,  and 
held   an   irregular   curved   line   from    Harper's   Ferry   to 
Norfolk.      They    also    had    troops    in    the   mountains    of 
western    Virginia,    to    repel    attacks    from    Ohio.      They 
moved  troops   into  southern    Kentucky   to   defend   Ten 
nessee.      They  had  built  many  batteries  along  the  Missis 
sippi,   so  as  to  stop  navigation  on  that  river;   and  they 
were  busily  building  forts  along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic 
and    the    Gulf    of    Mexico,    for    protection    against    the 
blockading  fleets.      The  whole  Confederacy  was  thus  soon 
surrounded  by  a  line  of  defences. 

629.  The  Federal  Troops  were  at  first  under  the  com 
mand  of  General  Scott.      They  held  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Potomac,  from   Harper's   Ferry  to  Fortress  Monroe, 
and  that  small  part  of  the  western  side  which  is  directly 
opposite  Washington.      Of  the  other  parts  of  the  exposed 
country,    they    attempted    only    to    hold    Kentucky    and 

1  Great  Britain  recognized  the  Confederate  States  as  belligerents  in  May, 
1 86 1,  and  other  nations  shortly  followed  the  example. 


i86i] 


OPERATIONS  IN   VIRGINIA 


369 


Missouri   until   the    new   soldiers    should   be  trained   and 
formed  into  armies.      In  this  they  were  successful.      The 


0  00  1U 

OPERATIONS  IN  VIRGINIA. 


armies  were  formed  and  placed ;  and,  within  three  months 
after  the  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter,  the  people  of  eleven 
States,  9,000,000  in  number,  were  surrounded  by  a  line 
of  hostile  fleets  and  armies  which  was  never  broken  until 
the  end  of  the  war.1 

630.  West  Virginia. — Serious  righting  began   early  in 
July,  in  West  Virginia,  where  General  George  B.  McClel- 

1  During  these  three  months,  while  the  two  lines  were  settling  down  into 
their  places,  there  was  constant  skirmishing  from  Virginia  to  Missouri. 
The  most  important  conflict  of  this  kind  was  at  Big  Bethel,  near  Fortress 
Monroe  (June  10),  in  which  the  Union  forces  were  defeated. 


THE   W 'AR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1861 


Ian  had   crossed  the   Ohio  River  with  a  force  of  Western 

troops.  McClellan  was  a 
graduate  of  West  Point, 
and  had  been  a  captain  in 
the  Mexican  war,  but  had 
retired  from  the  army 
after  the  war,  and  en 
gaged  in  business  until 
1 86 1,  when  he  took 
charge  of  the  Ohio  volun 
teers.  He  first  secured 
the  country  along  the 
river,  and  then  moved 
into  the  mountains  be 
tween  eastern  and  west 
ern  Virginia.  Here  he 
beat  the  enemy  in  the 
battle  of  Rich  Mountain 
and  in  several  other 
battles;  and  before  the 
end  of  the  month,  the  Confederates  were  driven  out  of 
West  Virginia.  In  September,  the  Confederate  General 
Robert  E.  Lee  attempted  to  reconquer  the  lost  ground, 
but  he  was  beaten  back  by  McClellan's  successor,  General 
Rosecrans. 

631.  Congress. — The  regular  meeting-time  of  Congress 
was  not  to  come  until  December.  But  President  Lincoln 
had  been  compelled,  in  taking  steps  to  defend  the  coun 
try,  to  do  many  things  for  which  no  laws  had  been 
passed;  and  he  wished  to  have  Congress  in  session  to 
provide  for  such  matters  in  future.  He  called  a  special 
session  for  July  4.  It  voted  to  consider  nothing  but  war 
business,  appropriated  $500,000,000  for  war  expenses, 
authorized  the  President  to  call  out  500,000  volunteers, 


GEORGE  B.  MCCLELLAN. 


1861]  BULL  RUN  37 1 

and    gave    him    all    powers    necessary    to    carry  on    the 
war. 

632.  Bull  Run. — The  successes  in  West  Virginia  made 
the  Northern  people  anxious  for  an  attack  on  Richmond, 
tand  Scott    gave  an   unwilling  consent.      The  road  from 
Washington  to  Richmond  is  crossed,  about  35  miles  from 
Washington,    by   a    little    stream   called  Bull  Run.      At 
Manassas  Junction,  further  south,  the  Confederate  army 
was  posted  under  General  P.    G.    T.   Beauregard.      The 
advancing  Union  army,  under  General  Irvin  McDowell, 
reached   Bull  Run  (July  21),  passed  the  stream  success 
fully,  and  defeated   a   great  part   of  Beauregard 's  army, 
which  had  advanced  to  meet  it.      In  the  afternoon,  before 
the   battle  was   decided,  the  Confederate  General  Joseph 
E.  Johnston  brought  up  a  fresh  army  from  the  Shenandoah 
valley.       The    half-drilled    Union    army    became    panic- 
stricken,  and  fled  in  wild  disorder  to  Washington.      The 
enemy  was  in  no  condition  to  pursue.1 

633.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac — On  the  day  after  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  General   McClellan  was  called  from 
West  Virginia  to    command  the  army  of  the  Potomac. 
In  November,  Scott  was  compelled  by  old  age  to  give  up 
the  command  of  all  the  Union  armies  to  McClellan,  who 
set    to    work    to    drill    and    organize    the    Army   of  the 
Potomac,    and   before   the  end  of  the   year  it   numbered 
150,000  well-trained  soldiers.      No  general  advance  was 
attempted,  but  the  Confederate  line  was  gradually  pushed 
back  from  near  Washington  to  its  first  position  near  Bull 
Run.      The    Confederate    armies   in    Virginia    were    also 
increased  and  drilled.      Both  armies  were  busily  fortifying 
their  capitals,   so  that  Richmond   and  Washington  were 

1  The  forces  were  at  first  about  equal,  30,000  on  each  side.  Johnston 
brought  in  about  10,000  fresh  men  in  his  army.  The  Confederate  loss  was 
2,000;  the  Union  loss,  3,000. 


THE   W 'AR   FOR    THE   UNION 


[1861 


soon    surrounded  by   long    lines    of  forts,    equipped   with 
heavy  cannon. 

634.  BalPs   Bluff. — In    October   a   part   of  the    Union 
forces,  2,000  in   number,  crossed  the  Potomac  at  Ball's 


P     E 


I      A 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


Bluff,  between  Washington  and  Harper's  Ferry.  They 
were  cut  off  by  a  heavier  force  of  the  enemy  and  defeated.1 
635.  In  Missouri,  General  Nathaniel  Lyon  was  at  first 
in  command  of  the  Union  forces.  He  was  an  energetic 
and  able  officer,  and  soon  controlled  all  the  central  and 
northern  part  of  the  State.  In  the  southern  part,  the 
Confederates  were  receiving  reinforcements  from  Arkansas 
and  Texas;  and,  when  Lyon  moved  forward  to  attack 
them,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the  hard-fought 
battle  of  Wilson's  Creek,  near  Springfield  (August  10). 


1  Senator  E.   D.  Baker,   of  Oregon,  who  had  become   a  general  in  the 
army,  was  among  the  killed. 


i86i]  /#  MISSOURI  373 

In  October,  General  John  C.  Fremont,  who  had  organized 
the  army  anew,  moved  forward  again  toward  Springfield ; 
but,  before  a  battle  took  place,  he  was  removed,  and 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


General  Henry  W.  Halleck  took  command.  Without 
any  great  battle,  he  gradually  during  the  year  drove  the 
enemy  out  of  Missouri.  In  November,  General  Ulysses 
S.  Grant,  in  command  of  some  Illinois  troops,  moved 


374  THE   IV AR  FOR    THE   UNION  [1861 

down  the  Mississippi  from  Cairo,  111.,  to  Belmont,  Mo. 
He  destroyed  a  Confederate  camp,  but  was  then  again 
attacked  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  his  gunboats. 

636.  On  the   Coast. — In  August,    1861,  a  naval  force, 
with  troops  on  board,  under  Commodore  Stringham  and 
General  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  captured  Hatteras  Inlet  and 
its    fort.      From   this    point    attacks   were   made    on    the 
neighboring  coast  of  North  Carolina.      In   November,  a 
still  larger  expedition  from  Fortress  Monroe,  under  Com 
modore  Dupont  and  General  W.   T.  Sherman,  captured 
Port  Royal.      There  were  76  war-vessels  and  transports, 
and  15,000  soldiers.      The  war-vessels  drove  the  enemy 
out  of  the   forts,  and  then   the  army  took  possession  of 
them.      From  this  point  the  neighboring  islands  between 
Charleston  and  Savannah  were  captured.      In  September, 
the  Union  fleet  took  possession  of  Ship  Island,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  in  preparation  for  an  expedition 
the  next  year  against  New  Orleans. 

637.  Military   Summary. — During  the  year  there   had 
been  serious  land-campaigns  in  but  two  States,  Virginia 
and  Missouri.    The  two  important  battles  of  the  year  were 
Bull  Run  and  Wilson's  Creek,  in  both  of  which  the  Union 
forces  had  been  beaten.      In  the  smaller  battles,  with  the 
exception  of  McClellan's  successes  in  West  Virginia,  the 
Confederates  had   also   generally  been    successful.      The 
people  of  the  North  and  West  had  been  so  long  at  peace 
that  it  took  them  some  time  to  learn  how  to  make  war. 
On   the   other   hand,   the  Union  forces   had  saved  three 
great  States,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  part  of 
another,  West  Virginia,  and  the  national  capital,  Wash 
ington.      They  had  formed  a  vast  army  and  navy  out  of 
nothing,  and  had  walled  in  the  whole  Confederacy  with 
besieging  lines.      They  had    secured,   in    Hatteras  Inlet, 
Port    Royal,    and   Ship    Island,    good    harbors   for    their 


1862]  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  375 

blockading  fleets,  and  points  of  attack  on  the  neighboring- 
territory.  Above  all,  the  manufactories  of  the  North  and 
West  were  in  active  operation,  commerce  with  foreign 
countries  was  free,  wealth  was  increasing,  and  prepara 
tions  for  the  next  year's  campaigns  were  encouraging. 
The  Confederacy  had  no  commerce,  few  manufactories, 
and  could  only  depend  on  the  fighting  power  of  its  men 
and  the  natural  strength  of  its  territory. 

638.  Foreign   Affairs — In  November,  a  United  States 
war-vessel,  the  San  Jacinto,  Captain  Wilkes,  stopped  an 
English  mail-steamer,  the  Trent,  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
took  off  two  of  her  passengers,  Mason  and  Slidell.      They 
were  Confederate  commissioners  to  Europe,  who  had  run 
the    blockade    to  Havana,   and    there   taken   passage    to 
England.      This  right  to  stop  and  search  neutral  vessels 
on  the  ocean  had   always  been  claimed  by  England  as  a 
war  right,  and  had  led  to  the  War  of  1812  (§  344).      The 
United     States,    as    in    1812,    denied     any    such     right, 
repudiated  the  action  of  Wilkes,  and  gave  up  the  com 
missioners  to  Great  Britain.      But,  for  the  moment,  there 
seemed  to  be  a  probability  of  war  with   Great  Britain ;   for 
the   British   Government  sent  troops  and   war-vessels  to 
Canada,  and  used  harsh-  language  in  demanding  the  com 
missioners.       Thus,    though    the   American    Government 
maintained  its  own    principles  in  giving  up  the   commis 
sioners,    the  American   people  had  for   some  time  a  sore 
and  angry  feeling   that  Great  Britain    had   not  behaved 
well  in  the  matter. 

(2)  Events  0/1862. 

639.  In  the  West. — The  year   1862  was  notable  in  the 
West  for  the  first  great  success  of  the  general  who  was  to 
end  the  war,  Ulysses    S.    Grant.      The  severe  fighting  of 
the   year  began  in   Kentucky  and  Tennessee.      The  Con- 


376 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1862 


federates  held  a  line  running  through  southern  Ken 
tucky,  from  Columbus  to  Mill  Spring,  through  Bowling 
Green;  and  in  Tennessee,  near  the  northern  boundary-line, 
they  had  built  two  strong  forts,  Fort  Henry,  on  the 

Tennessee,  and  Fort  Don- 
elson,  12  miles  distant, 
on  the  Cumberland.  The 
whole  line  was  com 
manded  by  General  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston.  Against 
him  were  two  Union 
armies.  The  larger,  under 
General  Don  Carlos  Buell, 
was  in  central  Kentucky, 
arranged  into  a  number  of 
divisions  and  considerably 
scattered.  The  smaller, 
under  Grant,  was  at  Cairo. 
All  the  forces  under  Buell, 
numbered  over  100,000; 
those  under  Grant,  about 


ALBERT  SIDNEY  JOHNSTOV. 


I5,OOO. 


640.  Federal  Advance.  —  In  January,  a  division  of 
Buell's  forces,  under  General  George  H.  Thomas,  was 
attacked  near  Mill  Springs.  The  Confederates  were  de 
feated  and  their  commander,  General  Zollicoffer,  was^. 
killed.  The  main  body  of  Confederates  shortly  after 
withdrew  from  Kentucky.  From  Cairo  Grant  moved  up 
the  Tennessee  River  toward  Fort  Henry.  Before  he 
could  reach  it,  it  had  been  captured  by  the  fleet  of  gun 
boats,  under  Commodore  Andrew  H.  Foote,  which  had 
accompanied  the  army  up  the  river.  A  large  part  of  the 
garrison  of  Fort  Henry  had  escaped  by  land  to  Fort 
Donelson.  Grant's  army  followed,  besieged  Fort  Donel- 


1862]  PITTSBURG   LANDING,  OR  SHILOH  377 

son,  and  captured  it  (February  16)   after  very  hard  fight 
ing.      The  prisoners  numbered  about  14,000. 

641.  The  Effect  of  these  victories  was  to  break  up  the 
whole  Confederate  line  and  push  it  far  back  into  Tennes 
see.       Columbus    and    other    points    in    Kentucky    were 
evacuated,  for  fear  their  garrisons  should  be  cut  off  by  the 
advancing    Union    armies.       Nashville,    the    capital     of 
Tennessee,  was  occupied  by  Federal  troops;    and,  as  all 
the   State   authorities   had   left  it,   President  Lincoln  ap 
pointed    Andrew  Johnson    (§751)    military   governor   of 
Tennessee.      Grant's  army  was  increased  to  40,000  men, 
and   sent   on   steamboats    up   the    Tennessee    River.      It 
encamped  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Tennessee  River,  in  the  southern  part  of  Tennessee ;   and 
Buell's  army  was  hurried  forward,  up  the  eastern  side  of 
the  river,  to  join  it. 

642.  Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh. — Before  Buell  could 
reach  Grant,  Johnston  had  gathered  all  his  forces  to  strike 
the   camp   at   Pittsburg   Landing.      His  attack  was  made 
early  in  the  morning  (April  6),  and  was  at  first  successful. 
The  Union  forces  had  no  suspicion  that  an  enemy  was  near 
when  the  Confederate  line  burst  on  them  from  the  woods 
and  by  night  had  forced  them  back  to  the  river.      Here 
the  gunboats  drove  the  enemy  back  by  a  heavy  fire  of 
shells,  and  gave  the  Union  forces  time  to  rally.      During 
the  afternoon    and  night,   about  20,000  of  Buell's  fresh 
troops  reached  Grant;  Johnston  had  been  killed  during 
the    battle ;     and    the    next    morning    the    Union    forces 
advanced  and  drove  the  Confederates  off  the  field.      This 
was  the  first  of  the  great  battles  of  the  war.      It  is  often 
called  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  from  the  name  of  the  little 
church  around  which  the  heaviest  fighting  took  place.1 

1  The  Union  forces  engaged  were   57,000,   and  their  loss   13,000.     The 
Confederate  forces  were  40,000,  and  their  loss  11,000. 


378 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1862 


643,  Corinth,  in  Mississippi,  was  now  an  important 
point  to  be  secured  by  the  Union  forces,  because  of  the 
number  of  railroads  which  centred  there.  The  Con 
federates  had  fortified  it  strongly,  and  it  was  expected 
that  Beauregard,  who  had  succeeded  Johnston,  would 
defend  it.  General  Halleck  was  now  in  command  of  the 
Union  forces,  and  he  slowly  pushed  his  way  so  near  to 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


OPERATIONS  IN  THE  WEST. 

Corinth  that  Beauregard  evacuated  it  (May  30),  and 
retired  southward.  Here  the  Union  advance  stopped  for 
a  time.  It  had  opened  up  the  Mississippi  from  Cairo  to 
Memphis,  and  the  Union  line  now  ran  along  the  southern 
boundary  of  Tennessee. 

644,  Bragg's  Raid. — General  Braxton  Bragg  now  took 
Beauregard 's  place.  In  August  he  quietly  moved  the 
larger  part  of  his  army  eastward  until  he  had  passed  the 
Union  line,  and  then  struck  north  for  Kentucky.  Buell, 
who  was  also  moving  eastward  toward  Chattanooga, 


1862]  MURFREESBORO  379 

hastened  northward  with  a  weaker  army,  and  reached 
Louisville  ahead  of  Bragg.  For  over  a  month  the  Con 
federates  remained  in  Kentucky,  plundering  the  country. 
Then  they  turned  back  to  the  southward,  finding  the 
Kentucky  people  loyal  to  the  Union.  Both  armies  had 
been  largely  reinforced,  and  Buell  pursued.  He  overtook 
Bragg  at  Perryville,  and  an  indecisive  battle  was  fought. 
The  Confederates  succeeded  in  carrying  off  their  long 
trains  of  plunder  to  Chattanooga,  while  the  Union  army 
took  post  at  Nashville. 

645.  Murfreesboro. — After   leaving   its   booty  at   Chat 
tanooga,   the  Confederate   army  moved  northwest  about 
half  the  distance  to  Nashville,  and  erected  fortifications  at 
Murfreesboro.      General  William  S.  Rosecrans  had  taken 
Buell 's  place  in  command   at  Nashville.      In   December 
he  set  out,  with  about  40,000  men,  to  attack  Murfrees 
boro.      Before  he  had  quite  reached  it,  Bragg  suddenly 
attacked  him,  with  about  an  equal  number  of  men,  and 
one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war  followed,  lasting 
three  days.      It  is  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  Stone 
River,  from  a  shallow  stream  which  flowed  between  the 
armies.      The  Confederates  had  the  advantage  in  the  first 
day's  fighting  (December  31),  but  lost  it  in  the  next  two 
days.      In  the  end  they  slowly  left  the  field   and  retired 
for  a  few  miles,  while  the  Union  troops  were  unable  to 
pursue.     Both  armies  then  went  into  winter  quarters,  each 
watching  the  other.1 

646.  Grant  and  Sherman. — All  this  time,  Grant  was  left 
in   command   at  Corinth,    almost  in   idleness,  though  he 
repulsed  two  attacks  of  the  enemy.      Toward  the  end  of 
the  year,  he   made   a  first  attempt    to    reach  Vicksburg; 
but  the  Confederate   cavalry  swept  in,  in   the   rear  of  his 
army,  destroyed  the  supplies  which  he  had  collected,  and 

1  The  Union  loss  was  about  14,000;  the  Confederate  loss,  about  11,000. 


3 8o  THE   WAR  FOR   THE   UNION  [1862 

compelled  him  to  return.  All  this  was  a  discouraging 
lack  of  success  for  Grant.  It  was  balanced,  however,  by 
the  close  friendship  which  he  had  already  formed  for 
General  William  T.  Sherman.  From  this  time  the  names 
of  Grant  and  Sherman  are  as  closely  connected  as  those 
of  Lee  and  Jackson  on  the  other  side. 

647.  Across  the  Mississippi  there  was  little  severe  fight 
ing  this  year.      In   March,    a   battle  was   fought   at  Pea 
Ridge,  near  the  northwestern  boundary  of  Arkansas,  and 
the  Confederates  were  defeated.      For  a  time  there  were 
hardly  any  Confederate  armies  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas ; 
but  there  was  a  great  deal  of  guerrilla  fighting,  that  is, 
attacks   upon    small   parties   of  Union   troops    by   armed 
men  who  were  not  regular   soldiers  or  under  any  military 
control. 

648,  The  Western  Gunboats  had  done  a  great  deal  of  the 
year's  fighting.     They  were  of  a  different  appearance  from 


WESTERN  GUN  BOA-IS. 


ocean  gunboats,  many  of  them  having  been  made  by 
covering  the  sides  of  river-steamboats  with  iron  plates  or 
rails.  Sometimes  a  beak  or  ram  was  added  at  the  bow. 
While  the  Union  armies  were  forcing  their  way  across 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  the  gunboat  fleet  gave  them 
great  assistance  by  controlling  the  Tennessee  and  Cum 
berland  rivers,  capturing  Confederate  batteries,  and  even 


1 86 2]  IRONCLAD    VESSELS  3Sl 

taking-  an  active  part  in  the  battles.  At  Pittsburgh  Land 
ing,  the  gunboats  threw  shells  over  the  Union  army  into 
the  Confederate  ranks,  and  thus  checked  the  advance. 
Before  Bragg 's  raid  took  place,  the  gunboats  had  fought 
two  successful  battles  with  the  Confederate  gunboats  on 
the  Mississippi  Rivei,  and  had  cleared  that  river  of  the 


CONFEDERATE  RAM. 


enemy  as  far  south  as  Vicksburgh.  The  strongest  resist 
ance  made  by  the  Confederates  was  at  Island  Number 
Ten,  near  New  Madrid.  They  fortified  it,  and  defended 
it  for  nearly  a  month ;  but  in  the  end  the  garrison  sur 
rendered. 

ON    THE    COAST. 

649.  Ironclad  Vessels  had  as  yet  hardly  been  used  on 
the  ocean.  Great  Britain  and  France  had  built  such 
vessels  as  experiments,  but  they  had  never  been  tried 
in  war.  At  Norfolk  the  Confederates  had  been  turning 
the  frigate  Merrimac,  which  they  had  captured  in  the 
navy  yard  there  in  1861,  into  an  ironclad  ram.  They 
called  her  the  Virginia,  but  she  was  better  known  by  her 
original  name,  the  Merrimac.  At  New  York,  Captain 
John  Ericsson  (§  447)  had  also  been  building  an  ironclad 
vessel,  which  he  called  the  Monitor. 


THE   WAR  FOR   THE  UNION 


[1862 


650.  The  Merrimac  was  finished  early  in  the  year.      She 

sailed  out  (March  8)  from 

Norfolk       into       Hampton 

Roads,  where   there  was  a 

fleet    of   five    of  the  finest 

vessels  then  in  the   United 

States  navy,  besides  a  num 

ber  of  smaller  vessels.    The 

battle   was   soon   over,    for 

the  Federal  fleet  could  do 

nothing  with  the  Merrimac. 

They  poured  on  her  a  storm 

of   heavy    shot,    but    these 

bounded    harmlessly    from 

her  iron  roof.     She  rammed 

and  sunk  the   Cumberland, 

chased  the  others  into  shal 

low  water,  and  there  fired  JOHN  ERICSSON. 

at  them  at  her  pleasure.  Before  she  could  finish  the  work, 

it  became  dark.  When 
she  went  back  to  Nor 
folk  for  the  night,  there 
was  apparently  nothing 
to  stop  her  from  sailing 
to  Washington  the  next 
morning  or  along  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The 
blockade  and  the  great 
Eastern  cities  were  at  the 
mercy  of  the  monster, 
and  the  telegraph  car- 
ried  the  alarming  news 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


everywhere. 

651.  The   Monitor 


unexpectedly  arrived    in    Hampton 


i362] 


THE  MONITOR  A 'NO    THE  MERR1MAC 


383 


Roads  two  hours  after  the  Merrimac  went  back  to  Norfolk, 
and  while  the  alarm  was  at  its  highest.  No  one  expected 
much  from  her,  for  she  looked  far  smaller  and  weaker  than 
the  Merrimac.  When  the  Merrimac  sailed  out  into 
Hampton  Roads  the  next  morning,  to  finish  her  work,  the 
little  Monitor  moved  out  between  her  and  the  wooden 
frigates,  and  a  desperate  combat  followed.  After  four 
hours  of  firing  and  ramming,  neither  vessel  was  seriously 
injured;  but  the  Merrimac  could  do  nothing  with  her 


THE  MONITOR  AND  THE  MERRIMAC. 

antagonist.  Finally,  she  gave  up  the  fight  and  steamed 
back  to  Norfolk,  from  which  she  never  again  came  out 
(§  659).  The  telegraph  carried  the  joyful  news  every 
where  that  ' '  the  Monitor  had  whipped  the  Merrimac, ' ' 
and  the  danger  was  over.  The  events  of  these  two  days 
proved  that  the  day  of  wooden  war-vessels  was  past. 
The  Federal  Government  soon  had  a  number  of  moni 
tors  afloat,  sufficient  to  defend  the  whole  coast.  The 
Confederates  also  began  to  build  ironclads,  in  order  to 
break  the  blockade.  Other  nations  at  once  began  to  give 
up  wooden  ships  and  form  ironclad  navies,  so. that  this 
fight  in  Hampton  Roads  had  the  effect  of  changing  the 
navies  of  the  world. 


384 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1862 


652,  On  the  Coast  there  were  further  Union  successes. 
In  February,  a  great  naval  expedition,  under  Commodore 
Goldsborough   and   General   Ambrose  E.  Burnside,   cap 
tured  Roanoke    Island,   the  scene   of  Raleigh's  colonies 
(§  23).      Soon  afterward,  St.  Augustine  and  several  other 
places    in    Florida   were    captured    by   troops    from    Port 
Royal ;   and  Fort  Pulaski,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Savannah 
River,  was  besieged  and  captured.      These  captures  made 
the  work  of  the  blockading  vessels  much  easier,  for  most 
of  the  good  harbors  on  the  •  Atlantic  coast  were  now  in 
the  hands  of  the  Union  forces.     Charleston  and  Wilming 
ton  were  almost  the  only  good  harbors  left  for  blockade- 
runners. 

653,  New  Orleans  was  a  place  of  great  importance  to 
the  Confederates,  for  while  they  held  it  they  controlled 

the  lower  Mississippi.  Thirty 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the 
river  were  two  strong  forts, 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip, 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  river, 
each  mounted  with  heavy 
guns.  Across  the  river  be 
tween  them  six  heavy  chains 
were  stretched,  supported  by 
a  great  raft  of  cypress  logs, 
so  that  the  river  was  com- 
o  20  40  eo  pletely  closed.  Behind  the 

raft  there  were  thirteen  gunboats,  an  ironclad  floating 
battery,  a  ram,  and  fire-rafts  to  burn  an  enemy's  vessels. 
Between  the  forts  and  New  Orleans  there  were  many 
batteries  along  the  river-banks,  and  in  the  city  there  was 
an  army  of  about  10,000  men. 

654,  A  Naval  Expedition  against  New  Orleans,  under 
Commodore  David  G.  Farragut  and  General  Benjamin  F. 


lip 


SCALE    OF   MILES 


1862] 


FARRAGUT  AT  NEH/  ORLEANS 


385 


Butler,  sailed  from  Hampton   Roads  in  February  for  Ship 
Island    (§  636).      Here    the    troops,    15,000    in    number, 


DAVID  G.  FARRAGUT. 

landed,  until  the  navy  could  open  the  passage  up  the 
river.  Farragut  bombarded  the  forts  for  a  week,  and  then 
determined  to  force  his  way  up  the  river.  Some  of  his 
gunboats  ran  up  to  the  forts  on  a  dark  night,  cut  the  raft 
and  chains,  and  opened  a  way  for  the  vessels.  The 
frigates,  which  were  wooden,  were  carefully  protected 


THE   WAR  FOR   THE  UNION  [1862 

with  sand-bags  inside,  and  chains  outside;  and  at  two 
o'clock  in  the  morning  of  April  23  the  fleet,  numbering 
thirteen  vessels,  moved  up  the  river.  After  one  of  the 
most  desperate  battles  of  the  war,  the  vessels  passed  the 
forts.  Great  bonfires  were  blazing  on  the  banks,  but  the 
smoke  was  so  thick  that  little  could  be  seen.  Each  vessel 
fought  for  itself,  firing  at  the  forts,  the  gunboats,  and  the 
ironclads  as  they  came  near  her;  and  none  of  them  knew 
very  much  about  the  result  until  the  smoke  cleared  away, 
and  they  found  themselves  above  the  forts.  The  Con 
federate  fleet  had  been  destroyed  in  the  battle. 

655.  The  Mississippi  River — New  Orleans  surrendered 
to  the  fleet  April  25,  and  the  forts  surrendered  soon  after. 
General  Butler  then  took  command  at  New  Orleans,  and 
the   fleet   sailed   on  up  the   Mississippi   until   it   met  the 
western  gunboat  fleet  from  Memphis  (§648).      During  the 
summer  the  western   gunboats   attacked   and   destroyed, 
near  Baton  Rouge,  a  powerful  Confederate  ironclad  ram, 
the  Arkansas.     It  had  been  built  in  the  Yazoo  River,  and 
had  passed  out  into  the   Mississippi  to  offer  battle  to  the 
fleet.     The  Mississippi  River  was  now  open  through  nearly 
all  its  course.      The  Confederates  still  had  strong  forts  at 
Vicksburgh  and  Port  Hudson ;   but  they  were  placed  on 
bluffs  high  above  the  river,  so  that  the  gunboats  could. not 
capture  them,  though  they  could  run  past  them  by  night. 
There  was  no  army  at  hand  to  give  assistance ;  and  the 
capture  of  these  two  places  was  left  until  the  next  year 
(§  680).    In  the  mean  time,  Farragut  left  the  Mississippi, 
to  take  command  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

656.  In  Virginia  this   was  a  battle-year.      The  fighting 
was  incessant,  and  there  were  four  distinct  campaigns :  (i) 
McClellan's  Peninsular  campaign;    (2)   Pope's  campaign 
in  front  of  Washington;    (3)  The  Confederate  invasion  of 
the  North;  and  (4)  Burnside's  Fredericksburgh  campaign. 


1862] 


THE  ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC 


387 


657.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac  had  been  increased  to 
nearly  200,000  men,  well  drilled  and  armed,  and  in  ex 
cellent  condition. 
The  authorities  at 
Washington  were 
very  anxious  that 
McClellan  should 
move  the  army 
directly  southwest 
toward  Richmond, 
so  as  to  keep  it 
always  between 
the  enemy  and 
Washington.1  But 
the  country  on  this 
route  was  very 
rough,  was  crossed 
by  many  rivers, 
and  had  been 
strongly  fortified 
by  the  Confed 
erates,  so  that  Mc 
Clellan  preferred 
to  carry  his  army 
by  water  to  Fort 
ress  Monroe,  and 
then  move  it  up 
the  peninsula  between  the  York  and  James  rivers  to  Rich 
mond.  The  objection  to  this  was  that  it  opened  the  way 
to  the  Confederates  for  a  sudden  rush  on  Washington,  a 

1  This  need  of  protecting  Washington  interfered  with  the  plans  of  all  the 
Union  generals  during  the  war.  In  the  same  way,  the  Confederate  gen 
erals  had  to  think  first  of  protecting  Richmond.  Lee  once  said  that  he  had 
•'got  a  crick  in  his  neck,  from  always  having  to  look  back  over  his  shoulder 
at  Richmond." 


SCALE  OF  MILES 

~F= 
40  60 

OPERATIONS  IN  THE  EAST. 


388 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1862 


more  valuable  prize  than  Richmond.  It  was  finally 
decided  to  follow  McClellan's  plan,  but  to  keep  a  part  of 
his  army,  under  McDowell,  in  front  of  Washington,  at 
Fredericksburgh,  and  another  army,  under  General  N.  P. 
Banks,  in  the  Shenandoah  valley. 

658.  The  Confederate  Army  was  at  Manassas  Junction 
(§  632).  It  was  commanded  by  General  Joseph  E. 
Johnston.  As  fast  as  McClellan's  army  was  moved 

to  Fortress  Monroe,  John 
ston's  army  was  moved  to 
the  Peninsula,  so  as  to  hold 
position  between  McClel- 
lan  and  Richmond.1 

659.  Yorktown,  on  the 
Peninsula,  the  scene  of 
Washington's  capture  of 
Cornwallis  (§261),  was  the 
first  fortified  place  on  the 
road  from  Fortress  Monroe 
to  Richmond.  Early  in 
April,  it  was  attacked  by 
McClellan's  army,  and 
after  a  siege  of  a  month 
the  Confederates  evacuated 
E.  JOHNSTON.  it  and  retired  toward  Rich 

mond.  At  Williamsburgh  they  were  overtaken  by  the 
Union  forces,  and  an  indecisive  battle  took  place.  The 
Confederates  were  now  inside  of  the  lines  of  intrenchments 
close  around  Richmond.  The  Union  forces  were  divided 
into  two  parts  by  a  little  stream  called  the  Chickahominy, 
which  passes  Richmond  on  the  north  and  empties  into  the 

1  Johnston  was  wounded  in  one  of  the  early  battles,  and  Lee  took  his 
place.  Jackson,  commonly  called  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson,  was  Lee's  ablest 
assistant  (§  661). 


1 86 2]  AT   THE   CH1CKAHOMINY 

James.  It  is  a  dangerous  thing  thus  to  divide  an  army. 
McClellan  risked  it  because  he  wished  to  push  his  line  far 
enough  north  to  join  McDowell  at  Fredericksburgh,  and 


ROBERT  E.   LEE. 

get  the  assistance  of  his  army  without  uncovering  Wash 
ington  (§  657).  The  Union  gunboats  controlled  the  James 
River  to  within  eight  miles  of  Richmond ;  and  the  Con 
federates  had  destroyed  the  Merrimac,  because  she  drew  too 
much  water  to  make  her  escape  from  Norfolk  to  Richmond. 


39°  THE   IV A R  FOR    THE   UNION  [1862 

660,  Seven  Pines  and  Fair  Oaks. — Late  in  May  there 
were  heavy  rains.      The  Chickahominy  rose  rapidly  and 
carried  away  the  bridges ;  the  whole  country  on  its  banks 
became  a  great  swamp;   and  McClellan's  army  was  badly 
divided.      Johnston's  army  at  once  attacked  the  weaker 
division,  on  the   Richmond  side  of  the  Chickahominy,  at 
Seven  Pines  and  Fair  Oaks  (see  map,  §  663).      After  two 
days'  heavy  fighting,  Johnston  was  badly  wounded,  and 
his  army  retired  again  toward  Richmond.     General  Robert 
E.  Lee  took  his  place.      McClellan  spent  several  weeks  in 
rebuilding  the  bridges ;   but,  while  he  was  doing  so,  Lee 
and  Jackson  were  operating  elsewhere  with  great  success. 

661.  Lee  and  Jackson. — Lee,  who  had  been  considered 
the  best  officer  of  the   United   States  regular  army,  had 

followed  his  State  when 
Virginia  seceded.  From 
this  time,  he  was  recog 
nized  as  the  ablest  Con 
federate  general.  His 
chief  lieutenant  was  Gen 
eral  Thomas  J.  Jackson, 
also  a  Virginian,  com 
monly  called  "Stonewall" 
Jackson,  from  the  obstinate 
way  in  which  he  had  held 
his  ground  at  Bull  Run. 
He  was  a  man  of  simple 
character,  so  intensely  re 
ligious  as  to  be  considered 
a  fanatic,  and  a  general 
of  remarkable  ability. 

THOMAS  j.  JACKSON.  662.  The  Raids  of  Jack- 

son  and  Stuart. — Johnston  had  already  sent  Jackson  north 
to   the    Shenandoah,   where   Banks  was    in  command  of 


r862] 


DAYS1   BATTLES 


391 


the  Union  forces  (§657).  Jackson  put  Banks  to  rout, 
and  chased  him  to  the  Potomac.  Indeed,  it  seemed  as 
if  the  road  to  Washington  was  open  to  him;  and  the 
authorities  there  were  so  much  alarmed  that  they  called 
McDowell  back  from  Fredericksburgh  to  defend  the  city. 
This  was  just  what  the  Confederates  wanted.  They  had 
balked  McClellan's  plan  (§659).  In  the  middle  of  June, 
General  J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  an  active  cavalry  officer,  was 
sent  on  another  raid.  Stuart's  force  rode  completely 
around  McClellan's  army,  burning  provisions  and  cars, 
and  tearing  up  railroads,  so  as  to  interfere  very  much  with 
McClellan's  operations. 

663.  Seven  Days'  Battles. — Lee  now  had  to  deal  only 
with  McClellan,  for  he  had  got  his  other  enemies  out  of 
the  way.  He  hurried 
Jackson  back  to  Rich 
mond,  and  crossed  the 
Chickahominy  to  meet 
him.  He  thus  had  about 
90,000  men,  nearly  as 
many  as  McClellan;  but 
his  troops  were  united, 
while  McClellan's  were 
still  divided  by  the  river. 
The  terrible  series  of 
engagements  known  as 
the  Seven  Days'  Battles 
began  (June  26)  at  Me- 
chanicsville,  a  little  place 
just  north  of  Richmond, 

Where    Lee     attacked    the  SEVEN  DAYS'  BATTLES. 

part  of  McClellan's  army  north  of  the  Chickahominy,  and 
was  repulsed.  The  next  day  he  won  a  victory  at  Gaines's 
Mill,  and  cut  off  McClellan  from  his  supplies  on  the  York 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


39 2  THE    WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [1862 

River.  Then  McClellan  began  a  retreat  to  the  James 
River  on  the  south,  in  order  to  reunite  his  forces.  Lee 
followed,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  week  there  was  desperate 
fighting-  every  day,  the  principal  battles  being  those  of 
Savage's  Station  (June  29),  Glendale,  or  Frazier's  Farm 
(June  30),  and  Malvern  Hill  (July  i).  The  last-named 
battle  ended  the  series,  for  Lee  was  repulsed,  and 
McClellan  had  reached  the  James  River.  This  ended 
McClellan 's  Peninsular  campaign,  and  his  army  was  soon 
needed  for  the  defence  of  Washington.1 

664,  Pope's   Campaign.  —  The    Union    forces    between 
Fredericksburgh    and    Washington,    40,000    in    number, 
were   now  put  under   command   of  General   John   Pope. 
Lee  kept  enough  men  to  hold   Richmond,  and  sent  the 
rest,  under  Jackson,  north  to  attack  Pope.      Jackson  com 
pletely  defeated  Pope  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run 
(August  29),  on  the  old  Bull  Run  battle-field  (§632),  and 
drove    his    army    through    Chantilly  and    Fairfax    Court 
house   back  to  Washington.      The   authorities   there  had 
already   ordered    McClellan   to    bring   his  army  back  by 
water;  and,  as  fast  as  this  \vas  done,  the   rest  of  Lee's 
army  was  moved  north  to  join  Jackson.      Thus,  early  in 
September,  the  two  armies  were  again  about  where  they 
had  been  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

665,  Lee's  Invasion  of  the  North.— While  McClellan 's 
army  was  still  at  Washington,  Lee  crossed  the  Potomac, 
took    possession  of  Frederick    City,    and    apparently    in 
tended  to  move  right  on  to  Philadelphia   or   Baltimore. 
McClellan,  who   now  commanded  all   the  forces   around 
Washington,    marched    through    Maryland    and    covered 
Baltimore,  so  that  Lee  was  compelled  to  turn  to  the  north 
west,  through   the  mountains.      While  he  held  the  moun- 

1  The  losses  were  about  the  same  for  both  armies,  15,000  men  each. 


1862] 


ANTIETAM 


393 


tain-passes,  Jackson  had  stopped  long  enough  to  capture 
Harper's  Ferry,  with  a  garrison  of  12,000  men  and  a 
large  amount  of  sup 
plies. 

666.  Antietam. — Mc- 
Clellan  overtook  the 
Confederates,  and 
fought  the  indecisive 
battle  of  South  Moun 
tain  (September  14). 
Lee  was  compelled  to 
give  up  his  invasion  of 
the  north,  and  turn  and 
fight.  He  took  position 
along  Antietam  Creek, 
near  Sharpsburgh,  and 
here  was  fought  the 
great  battle  of  Antie 
tam,  or  Sharpsburgh 
(September  17).  It  was 
a  drawn  battle,  but  the 
result  was  against  the 
Confederates,  for  they 
had  to  abandon  the 
invasion  of  the  North 
and  recross  the  Poto 
mac  into  Virginia.  McClellan  followed  them  slowly, 
and  by  November  the  armies  were  back  again  not  far 
from  the  positions  they  had  held  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war.  McClellan  was  blamed  for  his  slowness,  and  the 
command  of  the  army  was  taken  from  him  and  given  to 
General  Ambrose  E.  Burnside.  McClellan  held  no  further 
command  during  the  war.1 

1  The  Confederate  forces  at  Antietam  numbered  40,000;  the  Union  forces 


Confederate—* — »••••        Union  Forces 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
0         5        JO  '20  30 

FIRST  INVASION  OF  THE  NORTH. 


394  THE   WAR  FOR   THE   UNION  [1862 

667.  Fredericksburgh, — Burnside    marched    his    army, 
which  now  numbered    125,000  men,  to  Fredericksburgh, 

intending  to  cross  the  Rap- 
pahannock  there,  and  move 
straight  for  Richmond.  Lee 
and  Jackson  reached  their 
side  of  the  Rappahannock 
first,  and  fortified  the  hills 
behind  Fredericksburgh. 
Nevertheless,  Burnside 
crossed  the  river  and  at 
tempted  to  storm  the  hills 
(December  13).  He  was 
defeated,  with  heavy  loss, 
and  was  driven  back  to  the 
north  side  of  the  Rappahan 
nock.  The  command  of 
the  army  was  then  taken 
from  him,  and  given  to 

AMBROSE  E.  BURNSIDE.  ,     T^     TT        . 

General  Joseph  h,.  Hooker.1 

668.  Military  Summary.— In  the   spring  of   1862,   the 
advantages  were  all  with  the   Union  forces.    Mill  Springs, 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  Pea  Ridge,  Pittsburgh  Land 
ing,  and  Corinth,  in  the  West,  the  naval  battle  at  Hamp 
ton    Roads,    Roanoke    Island,     Fort    Pulaski,    and    New 
Orleans,  on  the  coast,  were  all  important  Union  victories. 
The  disasters  in  Virginia  during  the  summer,  and  Bragg's 
raid  into  Kentucky,  were  not  so  favorable.      But,  on  the 
whole,  the  year  was  marked  by  long  steps  forward.      No 
territory  had  been  lost  in  Virginia ;   the  Union  lines  had 
been  advanced  across  the  whole  State  of  Tennessee ;  the 

55,000,  though  there  were  about  25,000  others  who  took  no  part  in  the 
battle.     Each  side  lost  about  the  same  number,  12,500. 

1  The  Union  loss  was  about  12,000;  the  Confederate  loss,  5,500. 


1863]  EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION  395 

Mississippi  had  been  almost  opened;  and  great  pieces 
had  been  taken  out  of  the  Confederacy  in  every  direction. 
The  blockade  was  constantly  growing  stricter,  so  that  the 
Southern  people  were  in  want  of  such  common  medicines 
as  quinine;  and  the  two  great  attempts,  by  Bragg  and 
Lee,  to  burst  through  the  besieging  line  of  armies  had 
been  beaten  back.  But  there  was  no  feeling  now  that 
the  war  was  to  be  an  easy  matter.  By  the  end  of  the 
year,  1,300,000  volunteers  had  been  called  for,  and  the 
number  of  vessels  in  the  navy  was  nearly  600.  The  ex 
penses  of  the  government  were  nearly  $3,000,000  a 
day. 

669.  Emancipation. — Slavery  was  not  interfered  with  by 
the  government  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.      But  there 
was  a  strong  feeling  at  the  North  that  slavery  was  the 
real  cause  of  the  war;   and,  as  the  struggle  grew  fiercer, 
many  who  had  never  been   Abolitionists  began  to  wish 
that  Congress  and  the  President  would,  as  a  war-measure, 
attack  slavery.      Just  after  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  issued  his  first  Emancipation   Proclamation. 
It  warned  the  seceding  States  that  he  would  declare  their 
slaves  free  unless  they  returned  to  the   Union  before  the 
first  day  of  the  next  year.      No  seceding  State  returned, 
and    the    final    Emancipation    Proclamation    was    issued, 
January  I,   1863.      From  that  time,    the  army  and  navy 
of  the  United  States  considered  all  negroes  free  men,  and 
refused   to   allow  their  former   masters   to   treat  them  as 
slaves ;   and  as  fast  as  the  army  and  navy  gained  control 
of  the  South,  the  masters  were  obliged  to  surrender  con 
trol  of  the  negroes.     Negroes  were  also  enlisted  as  soldiers 
and  sailors.      Not  until  1865,  however,  was  the  Constitu 
tion  so  amended  as  forever  to  forbid  slavery. 

670.  Financial  Affairs. — The  support  of  such  enormous 
armies  and  navies  required  the  expenditure  of  money  on 


396  THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [1862 

an  equally  large  scale,  and  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the 
government  was  not  at  all  equal  to  it.  In  1862,  the 
government  decided  to  issue  paper  money  in  bills,  which 
were  often  called  '  *  greenbacks  ' '  from  the  color  of  the  ink 
with  which  their  backs  were  printed.  This  money  was 
made  a  legal  tender;  that  is,  any  one  who  owed  a  debt 
had  the  right  to  pay  it  in  this  paper  money,  no  matter  how 
much  the  paper  might  have  decreased  in  value.  From 
this  time  until  1879  (§  813),  the  government  paid  out  its 
own  paper  money  for  its  expenses.  It  would  not  have 
been  safe  to  issue  too  much  of  this  kind  of  money,  for  it 
decreases  in  value  rapidly  when  too  much  is  issued 
(§  233)5  and  a  large  part  of  the  expense  of  the  war  was 
paid  by  loans,  by  selling  bonds,  or  promises  to  pay,  with 
interest,  in  the  future.  In  order  to  encourage  the  sale  of 
the  bonds,  the  National  Banking  system  was  established 
in  1863.  Banks  were  not  allowed  to  issue  currency, 
without  depositing  a  slightly  larger  amount  of  bonds  at 
Washington.  All  the  banks  which  issued  currency  were 
thus  compelled  to  buy  bonds,  that  is,  to  take  part  in  the 
loaning  of  money  to  the  government  (§  484). 

671.  Foreign  Affairs. — The  Confederates  had  expected 
that  Great  Britain  and  France  would  intervene  in  the 
war;  that  is,  that  they  would  agree  to  consider  the  Con 
federate  States  an  independent  nation,  and  attempt  to 
force  the  United  States  to  follow  their  example.  They 
expected  this  because  the  cotton-factories  in  those  two 
countries  were  in  great  straits  for  want  of  the  Southern 
cotton,  which  was  cut  off  by  the  blockade  (§  625).  The 
Emancipation  Proclamation  put  an  end  to  any  such  ex 
pectation;  the  people  of  Great  Britain  would  not  have 
allowed  their  government  to  attempt  to  force  the  United 
States  to  stop  abolishing  slavery,  and  the  French  Govern 
ment  would  not  have  ventured  to  intervene  alone. 


1862] 


CONFEDERATE  PR11/ATEERS 


397 


Tin-:  ALABAMA. 


672.  Confederate  Privateers — New  reasons  arose  for  ill 
feeling  in  the  North  against  the  British  Government.    Con 
federate        agents 

in  England  built 
and  armed  two 
fast-sailing  steam 
ers,  the  Alabama 
and  the  Florida. 
The  British  Gov 
ernment  was  not 
sufficiently  care 
ful  to  seize  them ; 
they  escaped  to 
sea,  and  soon  almost  entirely  drove  American  commerce 
from  the  ocean.  Whenever  they  were  closely  chased  by 
American  frigates,  they  found  a  friendly  refuge  in  British 
harbors,  until  they  could  again  get  out  to  sea  and  re 
new  their  work  of  destruction.  As  they  were  British 
built,  British  armed,  and  manned  mostly  by  British 
sailors,  it  looked  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  as  if 
the  building  of  these  vessels  were  a  British  trick  to  destroy 
the  commerce  of  a  friendly  nation. 

673.  The  Sioux  War. — During  the  summer  of  1862,  the 
Sioux  Indians,   in    western    Minnesota,   revolted.      They 
had   made   many   complaints   of  their   treatment   by  the 
government,  and  in  August  they  burst  suddenly  upon  the 
outlying  settlements,   killing  men,  women,   and  children 
without    mercy.      Troops    were    hurried    back    from    the 
western  armies,  and  the  Indians  were  driven  out  of  the 
State.      Thirty-eight    of  them    were   tried,    convicted    of 
murder,  and  hanged. 


398  THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [l863 

(3)   Events  of  1863. 

IN    THE    EAST. 

674.  Chancellor sville. — For  some  months  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,   under  General    Hooker,   lay  quiet  on   the 
north  side  of  the  Rappahannock  (§  667).  -    Then  Hooker 
again  led  the  army  across  the  Rappahannock,  keeping  to 
the  north  of  the  strong  defences  behind  Fredericksburgh, 
and  thus  forced  his  way  about  ten  miles  toward  Richmond. 
He  was  then  met  by  Lee's  army  at  a  little  place  called 
Chancellorsville,  and  one  of  the  great  battles  of  the  war 
followed    (May   2-3).      By   skilful  generalship,    Lee   and 
Jackson    inflicted    heavy   loss    on   the    Union    army,    and 
drove  it  back  across  the  Rappahannock.      But  the  Con 
federates  suffered  a  heavier  loss  in  the  death  of  '  *  Stone 
wall  "  Jackson.      He  was  shot,  through  mistake,  by  some 
of  his  own   men,    during  the  night  after  the  first  day's 
battle.      Lee  said,  very  truly,  that  he  had  lost  his  right 
arm  in  losing  Jackson.1 

675.  Second  Invasion  of  the  North. — During  the  month 
of  June,  Lee  made  preparations  for  a  second  invasion  of 
the  North.      His  army,  now  numbering  70,000  men,  was 
moved  around  the  west  of  Hooker's  army,  until  it  reached 
the  Shenandoah  valley.      At  the  same  time,  Hooker  was 
drawing   back    his    army  of  about   100,000    men  toward 
Washington,   to  protect  that  city.      Soon  the  movement 
changed  into  a  race  between  the  two  armies  for  the  North. 
Lee's  army  moved  through  the  Shenandoah  valley,  crossed 
the  Potomac  at  Harper's  Ferry,  marched  across  Maryland, 
and    entered    Pennsylvania.         The    main    body   was    at 
Chambersburgh,    but    parts    of   it    held    York  and  came 

-  The  Union  forces  engaged  numbered  90,000,  and  their  loss  was  17,000; 
the  Confederate  forces  numbered  45,000,  and  their  loss  was  12,000. 


i863] 


BATTLE  OF   GETTYSBURGH 


399 


within  a  few  miles  of  Harrisburgh.  The  invasion  caused 
great  alarm  in  the  North.  All  business  was  stopped  in 
Philadelphia,  and 
militia  regiments 
were  hurried  for 
ward  from  all 
the  States  to  aid 
the  Army  of  the 
Potomac. 

676.  The  Army 
of    the    Potomac 
had   crossed   the 
Potomac     be 
tween    Lee    and 
Washington,  and 
moved     north 
through      Mary 
land     so     as    to 
protect    Balti 
more  and  Phila 
delphia.    General 
George  E.  Meade 
had     now    taken 

Hooker's  place  as  commander.  Just  as  Lee  turned  his 
course  east  from  Chambersburgh  to  attack  Philadelphia, 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  moved  up  between  him  and  the 
city,  and  the  two  armies  met  at  Gettysburgh. 

677.  The  Battle  of  Gettysburgh  was   fought  July   i,   2, 
and  3.      The  Union  army  was  on  the  crest  of  a  line  of 
hills  called  Cemetery  Ridge;  the  Confederate  army  was 
on  the  crest  of  a  line  of  hills  opposite,  called  Seminary 
Ridge;    between  them,   in  the  valley,   was  the   town   of 
Gettysburgh.      The  first  day's  fighting  was  rather  in  favor 
of  the  Confederates.      On  the  second  day  they  even  gained 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  20  ?0  100 

SECOND  INVASION  OF  THE  NORTH. 


400 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1863 


one  of  the  Union  positions.      The  final  struggle  came  on 
the  third  day.      After  a  tremendous  fire  of  two  hours  from 

150     cannon,     the     Con- 

F  federates  made   their  last 

•aadSlii^Sfc  charge    in    a   line    nearly 

a  mile  long.  It  was  gal 
lantly  made,  and  gal 
lantly  repulsed  after  a 
three  hours'  struggle. 
When  the  sun  set,  the 
battle  of  Gettysburgh  was 
over,  and  Lee  was  de 
feated.1 

678.  Lee's  Retreat  was 
begun  during  the  night, 
and  his  armymoved  south 
ward  through  Maryland 
and  Virginia  to  the  Rapi- 
dan,  a  branch  of  the  Rap- 
pahannock.  The  Army 
of  the  Potomac  followed 
slowly  until  it  reached  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Rapidan. 
Here  the  two  armies  remained  in  position  until  Grant 
came  to  take  command  in  Virginia  the  following  year 
(§  698).  But  Lee's  army  never  fully  recovered  from  the 
terrible  losses  of  Gettysburgh,  and  it  made  no  further 
effort  to  break  through  the  Union  line,  or  invade  the 
North. 

IN    THE    WEST. 

679.  Union  Positions — In    the   beginning   of  the   year 
1863  there  were  four  Union  armies  in  the  West.      One 

1  The  Union  loss  was  about  23,000;  the  Confederate  loss,  about  20,000. 
While  the  last  charge  was  being  repulsed,  the  arrangements  were  being 
made  for  the  surrender  of  Vicksburgh  (§  682). 


GEORGE  G.   MEADE. 


i363] 


CONFEDERATE  POSITIONS 


401 


was  near  Murfreesboro,  under  Rosecrans  (§  645);  another 
was  in  northern  Mississippi,  near  Holly  Springs,  under 
Grant  (§  646) ;  a  third  was  in  Louisiana,  under  Banks, 
who  had  succeeded  Butler  (§  655);  and  a  fourth  was  in 
Arkansas  (§  647).  The  leading  object  of  these  armies 
was  to  open  up  the  Mississippi,  and  thus  split  the  Con 
federacy;  and  as  Grant  was  operating  close  to  the  line  of 
the  river,  the  burden  of  the  work  fell  first  on  him.  His 
ablest  assistant  was  Sherman. 

680.  Confederate  Positions. — The  river  was  still  blocked 
by  strong  Confederate  fortifications  at  Vicksburg  and 
Port  Hudson  (§  655). 
Between  Vicksburg  and 
Grant  was  a  Confederate 
army  under  Pemberton ; 
and  all  the  Confederate 
forces  in  the  West  were 
under  J.  E.  Johnston 
(§  658),  who  had  suc 
ceeded  Bragg.  But 
Pemberton  and  Johnston 
did  not  work  wrell  to 
gether.  When  Grant 
had  begun  his  march  to 
ward  Vicksburg  the 
year  before,  Pemberton 
had  sent  cavalry  around 
to  the  rear  of  Grant's 
army,  captured  Holly 
Springs  and  its  supplies, 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  50  100  150 

THE  V.CKSBURG  CAMPA'GN. 

and  thus  compelled  Grant  to  return  unsuccessful.  He 
was  so  elated  by  this  success  that  he  overrated  his  own 
skill,  and  gave  but  a  half-hearted  obedience  to  Johnston's 
directions.  Johnston  wished  to  have  no  siege  of  Vicks- 


402  THE   WAR   FOR    THE   UNION  [1863 

burg,  but  to  fight  Grant  in  the  open  field :  Pemberton 
proceeded  to  strengthen  the  fortifications  in  every  way, 
and  to  get  ready  for  a  siege. 

681.  Grant's  First  Plan  was  to  lead  his  army  across  the 
Mississippi,  near  Memphis,  and  move  down  the  west  bank 
of  the  river  until  he  should  be  opposite  Vicksburg.     Here 
he   endeavored  to  cut  a  canal  across  a  great  bend  in  the 
Mississippi,  and  thus   leave  Vicksburg  at  a  distance  from 
the  river.    But  the  river  refused  to  run  through  the  canal, 
and  the   plan   failed.      After  two  months'  hard  work,  he 
found  that  Vicksburg  was  too  strong   to   be  taken  from 
this    side.      Grant   then,  in    April,  moved    his    army  still 
farther    south,  past  Vicksburg,    through    a  low,    flat,    and 
swampy  country.      At   the   same   time,  the  gunboat  fleet 
ran    past   the    batteries  without   much   injury,  and  ferried 
Grant's  army  across  the  Mississippi,  at  Grand   Gulf,  near 
Port  Gibson,  so  that  it  was   now  again  on  the  Vicksburg 
side  of  the  river,  but  below  the  city.      Sherman,  with  a 
part  of  the  army,  kept  up  a  noisy  attack  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  city,  on  the  Yazoo  River,  to  distract  Pember 
ton 's  attention.      Johnston  was  gathering  a  force  at  Jack 
son,  to  aid  Pemberton. 

682.  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson. — After   crossing   the 
Mississippi,  Grant  moved  northeast,  fighting  five  success 
ful    battles    as    he  went,    until    he  reached  Jackson.      He 
thus  drove  Pemberton  into  his  fortifications  at  Vicksburg 
on  one  side,  while  he  drove  away  Johnston  on  the  other. 
Then,  turning  back  from  Jackson,  he  rejoined  Sherman, 
and  the  whole  army  formed  a  close  siege  of  Vicksburg. 
From    that    time,    his    grip    on    the    place    could    not  be 
loosened.      He  threatened  Johnston   in  the  rear,  while  he 
besieged    Pemberton    in    front;   and,  after   a    siege  of  six 
weeks,    the    place    surrendered,    with     32,000    prisoners 
(July  4).      Port    Hudson  surrendered  July  9  to  the  Louis- 


1863]  CHATTANOOGA  4°3 

iana  army  under  Banks.  By  the  captures  of  Vicksburgh 
and  Port  Hudson,  the  whole  Mississippi  River  passed 
under  the  control  of  the  Union  armies  and  fleets.  The 
Confederates  could  no  longer  bring  grain  and  cattle  across 
the  Mississippi  from  Texas  and  Arkansas,  to  feed  their 
armies  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

683.  In  Arkansas  the  Confederates  attacked  the  post  at 
Helena,  July  4,  and  were  badly  defeated.      After  the  fall 
of  Vicksburgh,  Grant  sent  a  force  into  the  State  and  took 
possession  of  nearly  all  of  it,  though  there  was  still  some 
fighting  by  Confederate  guerrillas  (§  647). 

684.  Cavalry  Raids  had  now  become,  common  on  both 
sides.      A  cavalry  force,  if  it  could  get  into  the  rear  of  an 
opposing  army,  could  inflict  more  damage,  by  tearing  up 
railroads  and  burning  supplies,  than  could  be  made  up  by 
the  capture  of  the  raiders.      One  of  the  boldest  of  these 
raiders  was  the  Confederate  John   Morgan.      In  July  he 
passed    through    Tennessee    and    Kentucky    with    4,000 
horsemen,  crossed  the  Ohio  River  into  Indiana,  and  moved 
eastward  into  Ohio,  fighting  the  militia  as  he  went.      The 
whole  State  was  alarmed,  but  he  was  captured  before  he 
could  return  into  Kentucky.1 

685.  Chattanooga  was  a  most  important  point  for  both 
sides.      The   army   which    held    it    could    control    all    of 
eastern  Tennessee,  and  at  the  same  time  could  attack  the 
mountainous  region  to  the  south  of  it,  in  northern  Georgia. 
In  June,  Rosecrans  moved  his  army  south  from  Murfrees- 
boro,  and  Bragg  retired  slowly  before  him  to  Chattanooga. 
During  the  summer,  Rosecrans  moved  part  of  his  army 
so  far  around  Bragg 's  army  that  the  Confederates  evac 
uated  Chattanooga,  and  retired  into  Georgia.     Rosecrans 
thought  that  Bragg  was  retreating,  and  hurried  to  pursue 

1  Morgan  escaped  from  prison,  and  soon  afterward  was  killed  in  a  skir 
mish  in  Kentucky. 


404  THE   WAR  HJR    THE   UNION  [l863 

him.  The  two  armies  came  together  at  a  little  creek 
called  the  Chickamauga.  Bragg  had  received  reinforce 
ments  from  Lee's  army,  and  defeated  the  Union  army 
(September  I9-2O).1  Part  of  Rosecrans's  men  fled  in 
confusion  to  Chattanooga,  but  the  rest,  under  General 
George  H.  Thomas,  held  their  ground  obstinately,  and 
covered  the  retreat.  Bragg  followed  and  shut  up  the 
Union  army  in  Chattanooga  so  closely  that  it  was  almost 
starved. 

686.  The  Siege  of  Chattanooga  was  kept  up  for  about 
two  months.     But  one  road,  and  that  a  bad  one,  was  open 
to  the  Union  troops.      The  others  were  controlled  by  the 
Confederates,  who  held  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary 
Ridge,    both    looking    down     on     Chattanooga,    and    so 
strongly  fortified  as  to  seem  to  defy  attack.      The  Union 
army  could  neither  advance  nor  retreat,  and  there  seemed 
to  be' a  likelihood,  at  one  time,  that  it  would  have  to  sur 
render.      Bragg  was  so   sure   of  an   easy  success  that  he 
sent  a  part  of  his  army,  under  Longstreet,  up  the  Tennes 
see  River  to  besiege  Knoxville,  which  was  held  by  Burn- 
side  (§  667). 

687.  Lookout  Mountain  and   Missionary   Ridge.  —  All 
eyes  were  turned  to  Grant,  who  since  the  battle  cf  Vicks- 
burg  had  become  one  of  the  foremost  Union  generals, 
and  who  was  now  given  command  of  the  western  armies 
east    of    the     Mississippi.        He    went    to    Chattanooga, 
taking    Sherman-  and    other   generals    in    whom   he   had 
confidence,  and  drawing  men  from  other  armies,  includ 
ing  a  division  under  Hooker  from  the  Army  of  the  Poto 
mac.        Having    made  all   preparations,    Grant    gave  the 
order  to  advance,    and    the     lofty    positions     of    Bragg 's 

1  The  Union  forces  numbered  about  55,000;  the  Confederate  forcest  about 
60.000.      The  loss  of  each  was  about  equal,  17,000. 


i863J 


CHARLESTON 


405 


army  were  carried  by  assault 
Union  troops  al 
most  as   much  as 
it    did    the    Con 
federates.    Part  of 
the  fighting    was 
done  so   high  up 
the  mountain-side 
that     the     troops 
were     hidden    by 
the      clouds,      so 
that  the  battle   of 
Lookout    Mountain  is  often   called 
"the    battle    above   the    clouds." 
Bragg 's  army  retreated  to  Dalton, 
where    Johnston    was  put    in  com 
mand     of    it.       Operations    in    the 
West  then  ceased  for  the  rest  of  the  year. 


The  result  surprised  the 


MUKFREESBORO  TO 
ATLANTA 


ON    THE    COAST. 

688.  Charleston. — Fort  Sumter  was  attacked  in  April  by 
a  fleet  of  ironclads  from  Port  Royal ;  but,  after  half  an 
hour's  firing,  one  of  the  vessels  was  lost,  and  the  rest 
retired.  Charleston  was  besieged  for  the  last  half  of  the 
year  by  a  land-force  from  Port  Royal,  under  General 
Q.  A.  Gillmore,  aided  by  gunboats  and  ironclads.  Gill- 
more,  after  hard  fighting,  captured  an  earthwork  called 
Fort  Wagner.  He  battered  Fort  Sumter  into  ruins,  and 
destroyed  about  half  of  Charleston  by  firing  shells  into  it 
from  a  distance  of  about  five  miles.  But  he  failed  to  cap 
ture  Fort  Sumter,  or  to  get  any  nearer  to  Charleston  than 
the  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor.  The  ironclad 
Atlanta  had  been  built  by  the  Confederates  in  the  Savan- 


406  THE   WAR  FOR    THE  UNION  [1863 

nah  River.  She  was  much  like  the  Merrimac,  but  larger 
and  stronger.  In  June  she  steamed  down  the  river  to 
drive  away  the  blockading  fleet.  The  Wee  haw  ken,  a 
monitor,  met  her  and  captured  her  after  a  fight  of  fifteen 
minutes,  in  which  the  Weehawken  fired  but  five  shots. 

689.  Military  Summary. — The  year  1863  was  one  of 
great  advantage  to  the  forces  of  the  United  States  in  the 
West.  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas 
had  been  finally  secured,  and  the  seat  of  war  had  been 
changed  to  their  southern  border.  The  Mississippi  had 
been  opened,  and  the  Confederacy  divided  into  two  parts, 
each  of  which  in  future  had  to  fight  for  itself,  while  the 
Federal  Government  could  send  troops  from  the  North  to 
either  side  of  the  river.  A  new  set  of  generals  had 
appeared,  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  and  others,  who 
were  very  hard  and  fast  fighters,  and  cared  little  for  poli 
tics,  or  anything  else  except  the  war.  In  the  East  less  had 
been  done,  and  Lee  was  still  more  than  a  match  for  his 
opponents.  But  even  here  advantages  had  been  gained. 
Lee's  army  had  been  so  badly  shattered  by  the  terrible 
slaughter  at  Gettysburgh  that  it  was  never  again  quite 
equal  to  what  it  had  been  before ;  and  his  last  and  strong 
est  attempt  to  burst  through  the  attacking  line  and  carry 
the  war  into  the  North  had  been  a  failure.  It  is  clear 
now  that  July,  1863,  was  the  turning-point  of  the  war, 
after  which  the  Confederacy  grew  steadily  weaker.  Dur 
ing  that  month  occurred  the  battle  of  Gettysburgh,  the 
surrender  of  Vicksburgh  and  Port  Hudson,  the  conquest 
of  Arkansas,  and  the  movement  on  Chattanooga.  The 
results  were  so  evident  that  in  August  a  day  of  thanks 
giving  was  proclaimed  by  President  Lincoln,  and  a  day 
of  fasting  and  prayer  by  the  Confederate  authorities. 


1863]  PRICES  AND  PAPER  MONEY  407 

INTERNAL    AFFAIRS. 

690.  In  the  Confederacy  there  was  now  great  and  general 
distress.      The  government  forced   all   men   between  the 
ages  of  1 8  and  45   into  the  army,   so    that  women  and 
children  had  to  do  men's  work.      The  soldiers  were  badly 
fed,  clothed,  and  armed.      Food  was  scarce  and  dear,  for 
the   people   could   now  get    no   cattle   from    beyond   the 
Mississippi,   no  grain    from  Virginia   and   Tennessee,    no 
sugar  from  Louisiana,  and  no  salt  or  fish  from  the  coast. 
Cotton  could  not  be  sold,  for  the  blockade  was  too  strict. 
The  railroads  were  fast  wearing  out,  and  there  were  no 
great  iron-works   to   replace   them.      It  wTas  almost   im 
possible  to  get  such  common  articles  as  paper,  and  print 
ing  was  sometimes  done  on  one  side  of  wall-paper.      The 
government  had  issued  so  much  paper  money  that  it  was 
almost  worthless.      One  dollar  in  gold  was  worth  twenty 
dollars    in    Confederate    money.      Butter   sold   for    $5    a 
pound;  beef,  $1.50  a  pound;  coffee,  $10  a  pound;  corn 
and  potatoes,  $14  a  bushel. 

691.  In  the  North  and  West  there  was  no  such  distress. 
Food,  manufactures,  and  wealth  were  abundant.      Taxes 
were  high,  but  the  people  paid  them  willingly  and  easily. 
The  tariff  had  been   made  very  high  in    1861,   so  as  to 
offset  the  high  internal  taxes,  and  restrict  foreign  com 
petition.      Paper  money  had  been  issued  (§  670),  and  had 
decreased  in  value  so  that  one  dollar  in  gold  was  worth 
one  and  a  half  dollars  in  paper ;   but  wages  had  increased 
somewhat,  though  not  enough  to  make  good  this  differ 
ence. 

692.  The  Union  Army  was  well  fed,  armed,  and  clothed ; 
and  the  people  formed   Sanitary  Commissions   and  other 
associations  to  care  for  the  comfort  of  the  soldiers  in  the 
field.     These  associations  built  hospitals,  distributed  food, 


40  8  THE   W 'A R  FOR    THE   UNION  [1863 

medicines,  and  assistance  of  every  kind,  and  aided  the  sick 
and  wounded.  To  help  pay  their  expenses,  great  fairs 
were  held  all  over  the  country,  on  a  scale  never  equalled 
before  or  since.  The  New  York  City  fair  brought  in 
$1,200,000;  the  Philadelphia  fair,  $1,080,000;  and  the 
Brooklyn  fair,  $400,000. 

693.  Drafts  were  used  this  year  to  fill  up  the  armies,  for 
volunteering  had  become  slow.  Names  were  drawn  by 
lot  from  lists  of  able-bodied  men  all  over  the  country,  and 
those  whose  names  were  drawn  were  forced  to  enter  the 
army  or  pay  for  a  substitute.  The  first  draft  in  New  York 
City,  in  July,  was  stopped  by  a  great  mob,  which  held 
control  of  the  city  for  several  days,  and  burned  houses 
and  murdered  negroes  at  its  will.  Finally  it  was  dis 
persed  by  soldiers  hurried  back  from  Gettysburg!!  (§  677), 
and  drafting  went  on  unopposed.  Drafting  did  not, 
indeed,  bring  many  soldiers,  but  it  served  to  stimulate 
volunteering. 

694.*  West  Virginia. — The  western  part  of  Virginia, 
which  had  refused  to  take  part  in  secession,  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  in  1863  as  the  State  of  West  Virginia. 


FOREIGN    AFFAIRS. 

695.  Mexico. — France,  aided  at  first  by  Great  Britain 
and  Spain,  had  overturned  the  republican  government  of 
Mexico   as   soon   as   the   troubles    in    the   United   States 
began.      The  United  States  considered  this  an  unfriendly 
act  (§  420),  but  at  the  time  could  do  nothing  to  resist  it. 
France  now  made  Mexico  an  empire,  with  Maximilian, 
an  Austrian  archduke,  as  emperor.      Maximilian  accepted 
the  throne  in  the  following  year  (§  770). 

696.  The  Confederate  Privateers  Alabama  and  Florida 
(§  672)    continued   their   destruction    of  American    com- 


1864]  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN   1864  409 

merce;  and  a  new  vessel,  the  Georgia,  was  sent  out  on 
the  same  work.  This  vessel,  like  the  others,  was  built  in 
Great  Britain.  Confederate  agents  also  built  two  power 
ful  ironclad  rams  in  Great  Britain,  declaring  that  they 
were  intended  for  the  emperor  of  China  ;  but  the  United 
States  threatened  to  declare  war  against  Great  Britain  if 
they  were  allowed  to  go  to  sea,  and  the  British  Govern 
ment  at  the  last  moment  seized  them.  Confederate 
agents  also  tried  to  build  ironclads  in  France,  but  the 
French  Government  refused  to  permit  them  to  do  so. 


(4)  Events  o 

697.  Confederate  Positions  —  There  were  now  but  two 
great  Confederate  armies  in  the  field,  Lee's  in  Virginia, 
and  Johnston's  at  Dalton.      Johnston's  position  was  in  a 
mountainous  country,   which  extended    beyond  Atlanta, 
giving  him  a  great  many  defensive  points,  and  making  it 
difficult  to  drive  him  back  into  the  flat  country  between 
Atlanta  and  the  sea. 

698.  Union  Positions.  —  Grant  was  now  given  command 
of  all   the   Union   armies,    with   the   rank   of  lieutenant- 
general,   and  went  to  Virginia  to  meet  Lee,   taking  his 
best  cavalry  officer,  Sheridan,  with  him.      He  left  Sher 
man   to  command  the   western    armies  which   had   been 
gathered  in  front  of  Dalton.      Grant  and  Sherman  agreed 
that  the  forward   movement  should   begin   on   the   same 
day,  and  that  each  should  keep  his  opponent  so  busy  that 
the  two  Confederate  armies  should  not  be  able  to  help  one 
another,  as  they  had  been  in  the  habit  of  doing. 

IN    THE    EAST. 

699.  Grant  and  Lee.  —  Grant  had  won  his  western  vic 
tories  by  4  '  constant  hammering,  '  '  and  he  set  out  to  do 


4.IO 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1864 


the  same  thing  in  Virginia.  But  he  had  now  to  meet  an 
enemy  very  different  from  Pemberton  or  Bragg  Lee 
had  already  won  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  most 
skilful  generals  of  modern  times ;  and  "  constant  hammer 
ing  ' '  at  him  was  a  very  perilous  undertaking.  It  was 


Union  Forces 


,L^^  Confederate , 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  20  40  80 

OPERATIONS  IN  THE  EAST. 


like  a  battle  between  a  man  with  a  sword  and  a  man  with 
a  club ;  and  it  was  not  until  Grant  laid  down  the  club, 
and  used  his  own  military  skill,  that  his  superiority  in 
strength  gave  him  the  advantage. 

700.  Grant's  Plan. — Grant  had  decided  to  take  the  over 
land  route  from  the  Rappahannock  River  to  Richmond 
(§  657).  An  army  of  30,000  men,  under  Butler,  was 
sent  up  the  James  River,  to  a  point  near  Petersburgh,  to 


1864]  THE    WILDERNESS   AND    COLD  HARBOR  4*1 

attack  Richmond  from  that  side.  Another  army,  under 
Sigel  and  Hunter,  was  sent  up  the  Shenandoah  valley  to 
attack  Lynchburgh  and  threaten  Richmond  from  the  west. 

701.  The  Wilderness,  as  it  was  called,  between  Fred- 
ericksburgh  and  Richmond,  was  crossed  from  west  to  east 
by  many  rivers,  and  Lee  had  filled  it  with  fortifications. 
From  behind  these  he  fought  Grant  successfully  for  two 
weeks,    repulsing    his    stubborn    attempts    to    storm    the 
works.      The  fighting  was  the  bloodiest  of  the  war.      In 
the  first  three  days  of  the  Wilderness  battles  the  Union 
loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  14,000;  and  in  the  next 
eleven  days,  at  Spottsylvania  Court-house,  it  was  14,000 
more:   a  total  loss  in  two  weeks  of  28,000  men. 

702.  Flank   Movements. — Grant    now    resorted    to    his 
military  skill,  and  with  more  success.      At  each  of  Lee's 
defences  he  attacked  lightly  in  front,  at  the  same  time 
pushing  part  of  his  force  to  the   left,  attacking  the  rear  of 
Lee's  army,  and  so  forcing  him  to  retreat  to  a  new  posi 
tion.      In  this  manner  Grant  worked  his  way  southward 
to  the  Chickahominy  (§659).     Lee's  army  was  now  inside 
of  the  main  defences  of  Richmond,  the   centre  of  which 
was    at    Cold     Harbor.       Once     more    Grant    tried    the 
"hammering"    process.      The   whole   Union   army   was 
ordered  to  assault  the   Confederate  works  at  once;    but 
the  assault  was  hopelessly  repulsed   in   twenty  minutes. 
These   two    weeks'    fighting  had    cost    the    Union    army 
more  than    10,000  men,  and  the  Confederates  less  than 

2,000. 

703.  The  Auxiliary  Movements  had  not  been  successful. 
Butler  had  been  forced  by  the  Confederates  into  a  penin 
sula  on  the  James  River;  and  then  they  had  built  fortifi 
cations  in  front  of  him  and  ' '  bottled  him  up. ' '      Sigel  and 
Hunter  had  been  defeated ;  and  their  army  was  driven  off 
into  West  Virginia,  so  as  to  leave  the  Shenandoah  valley 


412  THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [l864 

unprotected.  Lee  was  quick  to  take  advantage  of  this. 
In  July  he  sent  part  of  his  army,  under  Early,  through  the 
Shenandoah  valley,  to  pass  down  through  Maryland  and 
attack  Washington.  But  he  found  the  forts  around 
Washington  too  strong  for  him,  and  returned  to  Virginia, 
having  succeeded  only  in  frightening  the  authorities  at  the 
capital. 

704.  Petersburgh. — The  defences  of  Richmond  on  the 
north  and  east  had  now  been  found  too  strong  to  be  taken 
by  assault;  and  Grant  determined  to  move  his  army 
around,  cross  the  James  River,  and  attack  the  city  from 
the  south.  In  carrying  out  this  movement,  the  army  fol 
lowed  nearly  the  line  of  the  Seven  Days'  Battles  of  1862 
(§  663),  but  with  very  little  fighting.  The  movement 
was  accomplished  successfully  in  June ;  but  the  army  had 
no  sooner  crossed  the  James  River  than  it  came  up  against 
the  fortifications  of  Petersburgh,  which  were  too  strong 
to  be  taken  by  assault.  Within  them  was  Lee's  army, 
which  had  moved  across  from  Richmond  as  Grant  had 
moved.  Petersburgh  is  about  20  miles  south  of  Rich 
mond.  The  Confederate  fortifications  ran  in  an  irregular 
curve  from  below  Petersburgh  around  to  the  north  of 
Richmond,  a  distance  of  about  30  miles.  To  defend  this 
line,  Lee  had  about  60,000  men.  Before  him  was  Grant, 
with  about  twice  as  many  men,  attacking  him  at  different 
places,  and  keeping  him  so  busy  that  he  could  not  inter 
fere  with  the  operations  in  the  West.  This  was  the  situa 
tion  of  affairs  during  the  rest  of  this  year  and  until  the  end 
of  the  war  in  the  following  spring. .  Both  armies  were 
strongly  placed.  But  Grant's  constant  effort  was  to  push 
his  lines  farther  around  to  the  southwest,  so  as  to  attack 
Lee's  railroad  communications.  Whenever  he  succeeded 
in  doing  so,  Lee  had  to  face  him  with  new  fortifications. 
Thus  Lee's  line  was  always  growing  weaker  as  it  grew 


1864]  SHERMAN'S  ADVANCE 

longer,   for  he  could  hardly  get  any  fresh  troops,  while 
Grant  had  as  many  as  he  needed.1 

705.  The   Shenandoah   Valley,   into    which    Early    had 
retired  (§  703),  was  now  guarded  by  a  Union  army  under 
Sheridan.      In  September,  Sheridan  defeated  Early  in  the 
battle   of  Winchester.      In   the    following   month,    Early 
surprised  the  Union  army  at  Cedar  Creek,  about  twenty 
miles    southwest    of  Winchester,    and   defeated   it   while 
Sheridan  was  absent  at  Winchester.      In  the  afternoon, 
Sheridan  rejoined  his  defeated  army,  rallied  the  men,  and 
defeated  Early,  driving  him  far  up  the  valley.2 

IN    THE    WEST. 

706.  Sherman's  Advance     from     Chattanooga    against 
Dalton  and  Atlanta  was  through  a  country  of  lofty  moun 
tains,  with  strong  defensive  positions ;   but  there  was  no 
"  hammering."      Both  Sherman  and  Johnston  were  mas 
ters  of  their  art;  and  the  contest  between  them  was  as 
scientific  as  a  skilful  game  of  chess  or  a  fencing-match. 
Johnston  held  each  position  until  Sherman's  forces  began 
to  lap  around  toward  his  rear ;   then  he  retired  cautiously 
to    another    position,    and    the    same   process  was    gone 
through  again.      Neither  general  was  careless  enough  to 
give  the  other  the  slightest  advantage.      In  this  manner 
Johnston  was   slowly  driven  back  from  one    position    to 
another,  until  he  was  forced  to  cross  the  Chattahoochee 
River,  and  take  his  strongest  position,  at  Atlanta.      Be 
yond  Atlanta  he  could  not  go  much  farther  south  (§  697). 

1  The  Union  loss  during  the  rest  of  the  year  was  about  40,000;  the  Con 
federate  loss,  about  20,000. 

2  During  this  campaign,  Sheridan  laid  waste  the  whole  Shenandoah  valley, 
burning  barns  and  destroying  crops  and  farming  implements.     Over  2,000 
barns  were  burned.     The  object  of  the  destruction  was  to  make  the  valley 
so  desolate  that  no  Confederate  troops  could  operate  in  it. 


414 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1864 


The  principal  battles  were  Resaca,  Dallas,  and  Kenesaw 
Mountain.  But  there  was  no  such  slaughter  as  in  Vir 
ginia.  Sherman's  loss  during  his  whole  two  months' 


W.  T.  SHERMAN. 

march  to  the  Chattahoochee  was  about  the  same  as  the 
Union  loss  in  the  two  weeks'  battles  around  Cold  Harbor 
(§  702). 

707.  Johnston's  Plan  had  been  to  bring  Sherman  just 
far  enough  from   Chattanooga  to  be  able  to  meet  him  on 


1864]  OCCUPATION  OF  ATLANTA 

equal  terms.  All  Sherman's  supplies  were  brought  by 
the  single  railroad  behind  him.  As  he  advanced,  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  leave  guards  to  protect  the  railroad : 
otherwise  the  Confederate  cavalry  would  work  around  to 
his  rear,  tear  up  the  railroad,  and  starve  his  army  (§  684). 
But  every  guard  thus  left  weakened  his  force,  and  made 
it  more  nearly  equal  to  Johnston's.  Johnston  had  played 
his  game  of  war  so  successfully  that  he  was  now  ready  to 
fight  the  long-delayed  battle,  and  had  begun  arrange 
ments  to  do  so. 

708.  Johnston's  Removal. — Johnston's  long  retreat  had 
been  skilfully  conducted,  but  the  people  of  the  Confed- 

'eracy  did  not  understand  the  skill  of  it.  They  were 
startled  as  Sherman's  storm  of  war  came  rolling  up  toward 
the  edge  of  the  Georgia  mountains  above  them ;  and 
Jefferson  Davis,  who  always  disliked  Johnston,  made  this 
feeling  an  excuse  for  removing  him.  General  J.  B.  Hood 
was  appointed  in  his  place.  The  results  were  that  he 
threw  away  all  the  advantages  still  retained  by  Johnston ; 
one  of  the  two  great  Confederate  armies  was  lost  before 
the  end  of  the  year ;  and  the  Confederacy  itself  fell  in  the 
following  spring. 

709.  Capture  of  Atlanta. — Hood  had  a  great  reputation 
as  a  hard  fighter,    and  was  anxious  to  support  it.      He 
made  three  furious  attacks  on   Sherman's  army  in  July, 
which  \vere  the  severest  battles   yet  fought  in  Georgia. 
He  was  beaten  in  all  three.      Early  in   September,  Sher 
man  fought  his  way  around  toward  the  rear  of  Atlanta, 
and   Hood  was  compelled  to   leave  the  city,  which  was 
then  occupied  by  the  Union  forces  (September  2). 

710.  Hood's  Change  of  Plan. — Early  in  October,  Hood 
moved  his  whole  army  past  Atlanta,  and  marched  north 
west  toward  the  country  from  which  Sherman  had  set  out. 
He  hoped  to  compel  Sherman  to  follow  him,  and  thus  to 


416 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE  UNION 


[1864 


change  the  seat  of  war  again  to  Tennessee  or  the  North. 
Sherman  made  a  show  of  pursuing  him  until  he  saw  him 
fairly  started  for  Tennessee,  and  then  returned  to  Atlanta, 
tearing  up  the  railroad  behind  him  as  he  went  (§  712). 
He  had  already  sent  a  part  of  his  army  to  Tennes 
see,  under  Thomas,  hoping  that  Hood  would  take  the 
course  he  did. 

711.  Hood's   Tennessee   Campaign. — Thomas     gathered 
all  the  Union  troops  in  Tennessee  at  Nashville,  so  that 

he  was  rather  the  superior 
in  numbers  as   Hood  drew 
near  the  city.      At  Frank 
lin,    a    few  miles   south    of 
Nashville,     a     battle     was 
fought  (November  30),  and 
the  Confederate  army  suf 
fered     severely.        But     it 
pressed    on     and    tried    to 
invest     Nashville.       After 
long  preparation,  Thomas 
attacked   Hood    and   com 
pletely  defeated  him   (De 
cember    15   and  1 6).      The 
pursuit  was  so  vigorous  that 
Hood's    troops  were    scat 
tered     in    every    direction. 
One    of  the    Confederacy's 

GEORGE  H.  THOMAS.  two  great  armies  had  thus 

faded  into  nothing  (§  697). 

712.  Sherman's  New  Plan. — Sherman,  on  his  return  to 
Atlanta,  had  before  him  a  country  in  which  there  was  not 
an  organized  Confederate  army  between  him  and  Virginia, 
nor  the  material  to  make  one.      Hood's  mistake  had  put 
the  whole  Confederacy  at  Sherman's  mercy.      He  had  an 


i864] 


THE  MARCH    THROUGH  GEORGIA 


417 


army  of  60,000  picked  veteran  troops,  with  abundant  sup 
plies,  and  with  States  before  him  which  had  not  greatly 
felt  the  war,  and  were  the  richest  part  of  the  Confederacy. 
In  the  middle  of  November,  he  burned  Atlanta,  cut  the 
telegraph-wires  to  the  North,  and  set  out  on  his  march 
southeast  to  the  sea.  But  the  sea  was  not  his  final 
destination:  his  real  aim  was  the  back  of  Lee's  army, 
far  away  in  Virginia. 

713.  The  March  through  Georgia  was  finished  in  a  little 
less  than  a  month,  and  during  all  this  time  it  was  not  cer 
tainly  known  at  the  North  what  had  become  of  Sherman's 


army.  Its  route  was  through  Milledgeville  and  Millen, 
down  the  peninsula  between  the  Savannah  and  Ogeechee 
rivers,  to  Savannah.  It  marched  in  four  columns,  cover 
ing  a  strip  of  country  about  60  miles  wide,  all  of  which 
was  made  desolate.  The  railroads  were  destroyed,  the 
depots  and  bridges  were  burned,  and  the  army  lived  on 
the  country.  There  was  hardly  any  resistance  to  the 
march:  indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether,  on  open  ground, 
any  army  of  the  war  could  have  successfully  resisted  this 
army  of  Sherman's. 


41 8  THE   IV AR  FOR   THE  UNION  [1864 

714.  Savannah. — The   army  reached  Ossabaw  Sound, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ogeechee  River,  December  13.     Fort 
McAllister,    which    guarded    Savannah,    was    carried    by 
storm  in  fifteen  minutes  by  General  Hazen,  and  communi 
cation  was  opened  with    the   blockading  fleet.      After  a 
siege  of  eight  days,  Savannah  was  captured.      Its  garrison 
blew  up  two  ironclads  which  had  been  built  at  that  city, 
and  escaped  to  Charleston.      Sherman's  army  remained  at 
Savannah  until  February,   1865. 

ON    THE    COAST. 

715.  Operations  on  the  Coast,  during  this  year,  consisted 
of  a  number  of  attacks  intended  either  to  keep  the  Con 
federates  busy  and  prevent  them  from  sending  assistance 
to  Hood  and  Lee,  or  to  capture   Mobile  and  Wilmington, 
the  last  ports  of  the  Confederacy  for  blockade-running. 
In    Florida,    an   expedition   from    Port   Royal    landed   at 
Jacksonville    in    February,    and   marched   \vest    into    the 
interior.      The  army  was  defeated  by  the  Confederates  in 
the  battle  of  Olustee,  and  the  expedition  was  given  up. 
In  Louisiana,  an  expedition  under  Banks  was  sent  up  the 
Red    River  from    New  Orleans    early    in   the   year.      Its 
object  was  to  capture  Shreveport  and  conquer  the  western 
part  of  the  State,  which  was  still  held  by  the  Confederates. 
It  was  defeated  in  April  at  Sabine  Cross-roads  and  Pleas 
ant  Hill,  near  Shreveport,  and  returned  without  accom 
plishing  anything. 

716.  In  North  Carolina,  the  Union  troops  were  driven 
from  some  of  their  positions,   early  in  the  year,    by  the 
Confederates,  aided  by  a  powerful  ironclad,  \hzAlbemarlc. 
In  October,  Lieutenant  Cushing,  of  the  blockading  fleet, 
blew  up  the  Albemarle  at  Plymouth  with  a  torpedo,  one 
dark  night,   and  the  Union  forces   recovered  their  posi- 


1864] 


FORREST'S  RAID 


419 


tions.1  In  December,  a  land  and  naval  expedition,  under 
General  Butler  and  Admiral  Porter,  was  sent  from  Fort 
ress  Monroe  to  capture  Fort  Fisher,  which  guarded  the 
entrance  to  Wilmington.  The 
navy  bombarded  the  fort,  but  the 
army  failed  to  capture  it,  and  the 
expedition  returned.  Grant  sent 
it  back  again  under  another  com 
mander,  Terry,  who  assaulted  and 
captured  the  fort  in  January,  1865. 
Wilmington  was  captured  soon 
after.  The  Confederates 
had  now  but  one  harbor 
on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
Charleston,  and 
that  was  closely 
blockaded. 


717.  For- 
rest's     Raid. 

—  Before  taking 
command  of  the 
army  opposed  to  John 
ston,  Sherman  led  an  ex 
pedition  east  from  Vicks- 
burgh.  It  was  intended 
finally  to  attack  Mobile 
from  the  land  side.  It  reached  Meridian,  but  its  cavalry 
column,  which  was  coming  from  Tennessee,  was  defeated 
by  the  Confederate  General  N.  B.  Forrest,  and  Sherman 
returned  to  Vicksburgh,  after  destroying  an  immense 
amount  of  property.  Forrest  passed  on  into  Tennessee 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


1  Cushing's  exploit  was  one  of  the  most  heroic  of  the  war.      Out  of  his 
crew  of  thirteen  volunteers,  only  himself  and  one  other  escaped. 


420  THE   IV A R  FOR    THE   UNION  [1864 

on  a  raid,  and  captured  Fort  Pillow,  near  Memphis. 
Its  garrison  was  mostly  negro  troops,  and  Forrest's  men 
killed  nearly  all  of  them. 

718.  Mobile  Bay  was  defended  by  two  strong  forts,  F'ort 
Gaines  and  Fort  Morgan,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
entrance.  Inside  of  the  entrance  there  were  a  great  num 
ber  of  torpedoes,  three  gunboats,  and  a  powerful  ironclad 
ram,  the  Tennessee,  commanded  by  Admiral  Buchanan, 
formerly  captain  of  the  Mcrrimac  (§  650).  Outside  was 
the  blockading  fleet,  consisting  of  fourteen  wooden  vessels 
and  four  monitors,  under  Farragut  (§  654).  Farragut 
fought  his  way  through  the  obstructions  and  past  the  forts 
into  the  harbor  (August  5).  He  then  attacked  and  cap 
tured  the  Tennessee,  much  of  the  fighting  being  done  by 
the  wooden  frigates.1  The  forts  then  surrendered,  and 
there  was  no  more  blockade-running  at  Mobile.  The 
city  itself  was  not  captured  until  the  following  year 
(§  72/). 

719  Military  Summary. — The  year's  operations  had 
crushed  in  the  shell  of  the  Confederacy.  The  battle  of 
Nashville  had  destroyed  one  of  the  two  Confederate 
armies.  There  was  but  one  important  Confederate  army 
left,  that  of  Lee,  in  Virginia.  Lee  could  do  nothing  to 
help  the  States  farther  south,  for  any  weakening  of  his  line 
would  be  followed  by  an  instant  attack  from  Grant,  who 

1  The  passage  of  the  forts,  during  which  Farragut  stationed  himself  in 
the  rigging  of  his  vessel,  in  order  to  see  over  the  smoke,  is  the  most  cele 
brated  part  of  the  day's  work.  When  cautioned  to  avoid  the  torpedoes 
which  lined  the  entrance,  the  admiral  expressed  his  contempt  for  the  tor- 
pedoes  in  strong  language  and  gave  the  order  "Go  ahead!"  One  vessel  ' 
was  sunk  by  a  torpedo,  but  it  was  not  Farragut's.  The  fight  in  the  bay 
was  fully  as  noteworthy.  The  Tennessee  was  the  strongest  of  the  Con 
federate  ironclads,  and  yet  Farragut  attacked  her  with  wooden  vessels. 
These  rammed  her  until  their  bows  were  broken  off,  and  helped  materially 
in  capturing  her. 


1864]  CONFEDERATE  PRIVATEERS  42 T 

was  watching  him  vigilantly.  Sherman,  at  Savannah, 
could  go  where  he  pleased,  for  there  was  nothing  to  resist 
him;  and  it  was  evident  that  he  meant  to  go  to  Virginia, 
and  crush  Lee  between  two  armies.  Everywhere  the 
people  of  the  Confederacy  seemed  to  be  worn  out  and  dis 
couraged  by  the  terrible  distresses  which  they  had  endured 
lor  four  years ;  and  so  many  of  the  able-bodied  men  had 
been  killed  or  crippled  that  it  was  not  easy  to  find  men 
to  form  new  Confederate  armies. 

ON    THE    OCEAN. 

720.  Confederate  Privateers  continued  to  destroy  Ameri 
can  commerce  during  the  year.  Three  of  them,  the 
Alabama,  the  Florida,  and  the  Georgia,  were  captured 
or  destroyed,  but  others  took  their  places.  The  Alabama, 
Captain  Semmes,  had  put  into  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg, 
France,  to  refit,  and  was  there  watched  by  the  Kearsarge, 
Captain  Winslow.  The  two  vessels  were  of  equal  strength, 
and  Semmes  sent  Wi'nslow  a  challenge  to  a  sea-fight, 
which  was  just  what  Winslow  desired.  It  took  place 
(June  19)  seven  miles  off  the  coast,  and  was  watched  by 
many  spectators  on  the  shore.  The  fire  of  the  Alabama 
was  fast  and  wild ;  that  of  the  Kearsarge  was  slower  and 
sure.  In  an  hour  the  Alabama  raised  the  white  flag,  and 
twenty  minutes  afterward  she  sank.  Her  captain  was 
picked  up  by  an  English  yacht,  and  carried  to  England.1 
The  Florida  was  surprised  and  captured  in  the  neutral 
port  of  Bahia  by  the  Wachusctt,  Captain  Collins.  Her 
capture  was  not  legal ;  but  before  anything  could  be  done, 
she  was  accidentally  sunk  near  Fortress  Monroe.  The 

1  The  superiority  of  the  Kearsarge's  fire  caused  particular  satisfaction  in 
the  United  States,  for  the  Alabama  s  gunners  were  from  British  war-vessels 
(§  369,  note). 


422  THE   W 'A R  FOR    THE   UNION  [1864 

Georgia  had  been  sold,  and  had  become  an  English 
merchant- vessel.  The  sale  was  illegal,  and  the  Georgia 
was  captured  on  her  first  voyage,  off  Lisbon,  by  the 
Niagara. 

INTERNAL    AFFAIRS. 

721.  In  the  Confederacy,  the  distress  of  the  preceding 
year  had  only  grown  worse  (§  690).      Confederate  money 
had  become  almost  worthless :   one  dollar  in  gold  would 
buy  fifty  dollars  of  it,  so  that  a  one-dollar  bill  was  really 
worth  but  two   cents.      Hardly  any  business   was  done; 
and  every  one  was  waiting  for  the   inevitable  end  of  the 
war.      Women  and  children  of  course  suffered  most  by  the 
destruction  of  property  and  the  scarcity  of  food  ;   but  they 
exhibited  a  wonderful  patience  under  suffering. 

722.  In  the  North  and  West,  comfort  and  prosperity  had 
hardly  been  checked  (§691).      But,  in  spite  of  prosperity, 
the   long  severity  of  the  war  had    begun    to  tell  on  the 
people.      At  different  times  in  the  year,  the  President  had 
called  out  a  total  of  about  1,200,000  new  men,  and  many 
persons  began  to  be  alarmed  by  the  apparent  necessity 
for    such    numbers    of   fresh    soldiers.      It    began    to    be 
believed  that  there  must  have  been  enormous  losses  in 
the  war  which  had  not  been  made  public.      In  fact,  the 
government   never   received  half  the  number  of  men   it 
called  for.      Desertions  and  evasions  made  up  for  the  rest, 
and  this  was  the  fact  which  was  not  made  public. 

723.  Presidential  Election. — The  Democrats  nominated 
(1864)  General   McClellan  for  President,  and  George  H. 
Pendleton,  of  Ohio,  for  Vice-President;  while  the  Repub 
licans  nominated  President  Lincoln,  with  Andrew  John 
son,  of  Tennessee,  for  Vice-President.      The   Democrats 
declared  that  the  war  had  been  a  failure,  and  ought  to 
cease ;  but  this  declaration  had  hardly  been  made  when 


1865]  THE  BEGINNING   OF   THE  END  423 

Sherman's  advance  and  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  the  fight 
in  Mobile  Bay,  and  Sheridan's  victories  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  revived  the  flagging  spirit  of  the  people,  and 
Lincoln  and  Johnson  were  elected.1 

724.  Canada  had  become  a  refuge  for  a  number  of  Con 
federate  agents,  who  contrived  various  means  of  annoying 
the  Northern  States.      They  endeavored  to  release    the 
Confederate  prisoners  who  were  shut  up  in  camps  in  the 
North  and  West,  and  even  to  set  fire  to  New  York  City ; 
but  they  failed.2 

725.  Exchange  of  Prisoners  had  ceased,  for  the  Confed 
erate  authorities  refused  to  exchange  negro  soldiers.     The 
Union  prisoners,  shut  up  amid  the  misery  of  the  Confed 
eracy,  suffered  horribly,   particularly  at  Andersonville,  a 
prison  near  Macon,  Georgia. 

726.  Nevada,  a  part  of  the  Mexican  session  of  1848, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1864. 

(5)   Events  0/1865. 

CONCLUSION    OF    THE    WAR. 

727.  In  Mississippi  and  Alabama  several  Union  columns 
were  already  moving  from  place  to  place,   seizing  Con 
federate  supplies  and   arms,  and  scattering  any  body  of 
Confederate  troops  that  attempted  to  make  head  against 
them.      The  only  serious  resistance  was  at  Mobile;  and 
that  city  surrendered  in  April,  after  a  siege.      That  really 
ended  the  war  in  this  section ;  but  early  in  May,  when 
the  war  had  ended  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  a  gen 
eral  surrender  of  the  Confederate  troops  in  Mississippi  and 
Alabama  was  made  by  General  Richard  Taylor  (§  734). 

1  Of  the    233    electoral  votes,   Lincoln   and  Johnson    received   212,    and 
McClellan  and  Pendleton  21. 

2  In  October  a  number  of  them  rode  into  the  little  town  of  St.  Albans,  in 
Vermont,  and  robbed  the  bank  there. 


424 


THE    WAR   FOR    THE   UNION 


[1865 


728.  Sherman's  Northward  March  began  from  Savannah 
^February  i).  He  moved  directly  north  to  Columbia, 
which  was  burned  while  he  held  possession  of  it.  Each 
side  accused  the  other  of  having  burned  the  city.  From 
Columbia,  Sherman  moved  northeast  to  Fayetteville,  fol 
lowing  nearly  the  same  route  as  that  taken  by  Cornwallis 
in  1781  (§251).  The  Confederate  garrisons  in  Charleston 
and  other  coast-towns  were  forced  to  leave  their  posts 
and  hurry  northward  ahead  of  him.  Thus  the  whole 


Union  Farces 


Confederate  , 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


120 


OPERATIONS  IN  VIRGINIA. 


Atlantic  coast  was  seized  by  the  Union  forces.  So  far, 
Sherman  had  met  little  armed  resistance,  and  his  princi 
pal  difficulty  had  been  the  winter  rains  and  the  swollen 
rivers  and  swamps.  Now  he  had  to  move  more  cautiously, 


1865]  SHERIDAN'S   RAID  4^5 

for  he  had  his  old  enemy  again  before  him.  Jefferson  Davis 
had  been  forced  to  call  Johnston  back  to  service,  and  he  had 
gathered  40,000  men  to  dispute  Sherman's  farther  advance. 

729.  Johnston's  Army  was  composed  of  some  fragments 
of  the  scattered  Western  armies,  and  of  the  garrisons  of 
Charleston  and  other  coast  cities  which  had  been  evac 
uated  as  Sherman's  army  passed  them.      The  whole  had 
been  gathered  up  by  Johnston,  and  formed  into  an  army. 
He  attacked  Sherman  furiously  near  Goldsboro    (March 
19),  and  for  a  time  the  battle  was  doubtful.     But  Sherman 
finally   drove    Johnston    back,    and    reached    Goldsboro. 
Here  he  was  joined  by  fresh  troops  from  Wilmington,  and 
both  armies  waited  for  the  result  of  operations  in  Virginia. 

730.  Grant's  Opening  Movement. — It  has  already  been 
seen  that  Grant's  general  plan  was  to  push  his  line  farther 
to  the  southwest  around  Petersburgh,  and  thus,  while  he 
had  men  enough  to  keep  his  own  line  strong,  force  Lee  to 
lengthen  and  weaken  his  line  (§  704).      He  made  another 
movement  in  this  direction  the  day  before  Sherman  started 
from  Savannah,  reaching  a  little  stream  called  Hatcher's 
Run,    and    holding    his    ground.       He    then    waited    for 
Sheridan  to  join  him  from  the  Shenandoah  valley. 

731.  Sheridan,  with   10,000  picked  cavalry,  moved  up 
the   Shenandoah   valley  to   Staunton,    near  Lynchburgh. 
There   he  turned  eastward  to  Charlottesville,    scattering 
Early 's  army  on  the  way.      He  again   moved  eastward, 
passing    to    the  north  of  the  defences   of  Richmond,  and 
joined  Grant.      He  had  destroyed  the  canal,  the  railroad, 
and  bridges  all  the  way  from  Lynchburgh  to  Richmond, 
and  thus  cut  off  much  of  Lee's  supplies. 

732.  The  Final  Advance  began  March  29,  while  Sherman 
was  resting  at  Goldsboro.      Sheridan  made  another  move 
ment  to  the    southwest,    across   Hatcher's    Run,   to    Five 
Forks,   and  held  his  ground.      Lee  again  lengthened  his 


426 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION 


[1865 


and 


Petersburgh 


line  to  meet  this   new  danger;   but  the  line  was  now  so 

long  that  his  50,000 
men  could  not  guard  it. 
Grant  at  once  advanced 
his  whole  line,  100,000 
strong,  and  burst  his 
way  through  Lee's  line 
of  intrenchments  (April 
2).  Lee  retreated  west 
ward  during  the  night, 
Richmond  and 
were  en 

tered     by    the     Union 
troops.    Jefferson  Davis 
and     the      Confederate 
caped  by 

railroad  to  North  Caro- 
lina.1 

733.  Lee's  Surrender. 
—Lee's  line  of  retreat 
\vas  westward,  between 

.  T  .        . 

the  James  and  Appo- 
mattox  rivers,  toward  Lynchburgh.  From  this  place  he 
hoped  to  make  his  way 
south  into  North  Caro 
lina,  and  join  Johnston. 
But  Grant's  army  was  in 
hot  pursuit;  and,  before- 
Lee  could  reach  Lynch 
burgh,  Sheridan  had 

passed       him       and       inter-  SIGNATURES  OF  GRANT  AND  LEE. 

posed   between    him   and  that  place.      Lee's  retreat  was 

1  Davis  was  captured  in  Georgia  the  next  month,  and  was  imprisoned  in 
Fortress  Monroe  for  two  years.      He  was  then  released  without  trial. 
United  States  did  not  put  any  one  to  death  for  treason. 


PHILIP  H.   SHERIDAN. 


The 


1 865]  GENERAL   SURRENDER  W 

cut  off;  his  men  were  few,  hungry,  and  worn  out;  and  he 
surrendered  the  Confederate  forces  in  Virginia,  at  a  little 
place  called  Appomattox  Court-house  (April  9).  Grant 
asked  no  terms  of  surrender  that  were  not  generous. 
Lee's  troops  were  only  to  promise  to  bear  arms  no  longer 
against  the  United  States.  They  were  to  give  up  public 
property,  except  that  they  were  to  keep  their  horses  for 
use  in  the  spring  ploughing. 

734.  General  Surrender — Sherman  at  once  pushed  for 
ward    from    Goldsboro,    and    occupied    Raleigh.       Here 
Johnston  surrendered  his  army  (April  26).      His  men,  like 
Lee's,    were   dismissed   on   giving   their  word  to   do   no 
further  act  of  war.      The  other  Confederate  forces  east  of 
the  Mississippi  surrendered  early  in  May,  followed  toward 
the  end  of  the  same  month  by  those  west  of  the  Missis 
sippi.      They  received  the  same  terms  as  those  given  to 
the  armies  of  Lee  and  Johnston.      The  war  was  over,  and 
the  soldiers  of  the  Confederacy  went  quietly  back  to  their 
desolated   homes,    there   to   begin    a    new   struggle,    not 
against  the  Union,  but  against  poverty. 

735.  The   Grand   Review.  —  The    victorious    armies    of 
Grant  and  Sherman,  numbering  about  150,000  men,  were 
reviewed  in  Washington,  near  the  end  of  May,  by  their 
commanders   and  the   officers  of  the  government.      For 
two   days   the   long   line   of  sunburnt  veterans    marched 
through  the  principal  street,   accompanied  by  the  music 
of  military  bands,   flowers,  and  the  cheers  of  spectators 
from   all    parts  of  the  country.      The   disbanding  of  the 
army  then    began    (§  752).      The  regiments  were    given 
similar  triumphal  receptions  on  their  arrival  in  their  own 
States,  and  the  companies  on  their  arrival  at  their  homes.1 


1  In  1866  the  veterans  formed  an  association,  under  the  name  of  "  The 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic." 


THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [l865 


DEATH     OF     PRESIDENT     LINCOLN. 

736.  Public  Rejoicings  were  continued  in  the  North  and 
West  for  nearly  a  week  after  Lee's  surrender.      The  firing 
of  cannon,  public  meetings,  processions,  and  the  illumina 
tion  of  houses  showed  the  joy  of  the  people  that  the  war 
\vas  not  only  over,  but  successfully  over.      In  it  all  there 
was  a  general  feeling  of  gratitude  to  President  Lincoln 
for  his  share  in  the  work.      He  had   entered  Washington, 
four  years  before,  almost  unknown:   now  he  was  recog 
nized  as  a  wise,  prudent,  and  great-hearted  leader  of  men. 
In  all  the  ups  and  downs  of  the  war,  he  had  not  lost  his 
temper,    his    courage,    or    his   self-control,    and    he    had 
always  done  the  sensible  thing  at  the  fit  time.      The  more 
the   people  had   come  to  know  him,  the  more  they  had 
loved  and  trusted  him. 

737.  The  Assassination  of  the  President — A  conspiracy 
had   been  formed  by  a  number  of  persons  in   and  near 
Washington  to  kill  the  leading  officers  of  the  government, 
in  order  to  throw  national  affairs  into  confusion  and  give 
the  Confederacy  a  last  chance.      Its  leader,  John  Wilkes 
Booth,  seems  to  have  been  crazed  by  a  desire  to  be  talked 
about,   and  some    of  his  associates  were  at  least  weak- 
minded.      The  President  had  avoided  military  guards  and 
protection  throughout  the  war,  and  his  fearlessness  made 
him   an   easy   victim.      One   of  his   few   pleasures,   when 
tired  out,  was  to  attend  the  theatre.      On  the  appointed 
night,   Booth  stole  into  the  private  box  where  the  Presi 
dent  was    sitting,    and  shot  him  through  the  head  from 
behind,  so  that  he  died  the  next  day   (April   15,  1865). 
Another  conspirator  had  attacked  Secretary  Seward,  who 
was  ill  and  in  bed,  but  only  wounded  him.      Booth  was 
chased    into    Virginia,    and    killed    in    a    barn    in    which 


i86s] 


MILITARY  SUMMARY 


429 


he   had   hidden   himself.        The   other  conspirators    were 
arrested,  four  of  them  hanged  and  four  imprisoned. 

738.  The  Funeral  of  the  President  lasted  for  about  three 
weeks.      The  body  was  taken 

slowly  to  New  York  City, 
and  thence  westward  to  his 
home  in  Springfield,  Illinois. 
All  business  was  stopped  in 
the  cities  on  the  route,  and 
the  whole  people  joined  in 
the  ceremonies.  His  late 
enemies  in  the  seceding 
States  lamented  his  death, 
for  they  had  come  to  see 
that  he  had  never  cherished 
hatred  of  them  because  of 

their     Conduct,     and    that    his  WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD. 

murder  was  the  worst  calamity  that  could  have  befallen 
them. 

739.  Andrew  Johnson,  the  Vice- President,  became  Presi 
dent  at   Lincoln's    death.      As    Lincoln    had  served  but 
little  more   than   a  month  of  his  second  four  years,    his 
second  term  will  be  considered  as  Johnson's  administra 
tion. 


MILITARY    SUMMARY    OF    THE    WAR. 

740.  The  Course  of  the  War  seems  to  fall  naturally  into 
two  parts.  For  the  first  two  years  the  Federal  Govern 
ment  was  busied  in  fixing  its  encircling  lines  and  in 
winning  .territory  piecemeal  from  the  Confederacy.  For 
the  last  two  years  its  energies  were  bent  on  seeking  and 
defeating  the  principal  Confederate  armies.  The  turning- 
point  of  the  war  was  in  July,  1863  (§  689);  and  the  lead- 


43°  THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [i865 

ing  Union  generals  at  the  end  were  not  those  who  had 
led  at  the  beginning. 

741.  Events  of  1861  (§  632). — The  principal  battles  of 
i  86 1  were  those  of  Bull  Run  (July  2 1 )  and  Wilson's  Creek 
(August   10),   in   both   of   which   the  Union   forces   were 
defeated.      But  the  Union  armies  had  seized  and  held  a 
vast  extent  of  doubtful  territory,  so  that  the  Confederacy 
was  much  smaller  than  had  been  expected ;   and  opera 
tions  on  the  Atlantic  coast  had  been  fairly  commenced  at 
Port  Royal. 

742.  Events  of  1862  (§  639). — Two  attempts  were  made 
this  year  by  the  Confederate  armies  to  break  through  the 
encircling  line,  by  Bragg  in  August  and  by  Lee  in  Sep 
tember.      Both  were  defeated.      The  great  battles  in  the 
East  were   tne  Seven    Days'    Battles    in   June   and   July, 
Antietam  (September  17),  and  Fredericksburgh  (Decem 
ber  13).      Of  these,  Antietam  was  the  only  decisive  Union 
victory.      The  great  battles  in  the  West  were  Fort  Donel- 
son  (February  16),  Pittsburgh  Landing  (April  6-7),  and 
Murfreesboro   (December  31),  all  Union  victories.      The 
capture  of  New  Orleans   (April  28)  was  also  a  most  im 
portant  Union  success.     The  result  of  the  year's  operations 
was  the  winning  of  a  great   amount   of  territory  in  the 
West,  but  the  Confederate  armies  were  still  as  strong  and 
as  confident  as  ever. 

743.  Events  of  1863  ('§  674). — In  the  East  the  principal 
battles  were  Chancellorsville   (May  2—3),   a  Confederate 
victory;    and   Gettysburg!!   (July   1-3),   a  Union  victory, 
which  defeated  the  last  great  attempt,  by  Lee,  to  break 
through  the  encircling  line.      In  the  West,  a  Confederate 
army  was  captured  at  Vicksburgh  (July  4),  the  Mississippi 
was    opened,    and    the    Confederacy   was    divided.      The 
Confederate  victory  of  Chickamauga  (September   19-20) 
was  followed  by  the  Union  victories  of  Lookout  Mountain 


1865]  MILITARY  SUMMARY  43 T 

and  Missionary  Ridge  (November  23-25).  The  advan 
tages  of  the  year's  operations  in  the  West  were  altogether 
with  the  Union  forces,  and  the  Confederate  armies  in  that 
section  for  the  first  time  began  to  show  a  falling  off  in 
strength  and  confidence. 

744,  Events  of  1864  (§  697). — The  great  battles  in  the 
East  were  the  Wilderness  battles  and  Cold  Harbor  in  May 
and  June,  ending  in  the  siege  of  Petersburg!!,  which  lasted 
until  the  end  of  the  war.      While  it  was  going  on,  the 
western  army  of  the  Confederacy  was  blotted  out  at  Nash 
ville  (December  15);  and  Sherman,  with  hardly  an  enemy 
before  him,  had  reached  Savannah   on  his  way  northward 
to  crush  Lee. 

745,  Events  of  1865  (§  727). — Sherman's  march  north 
ward  from  Savannah  in   February  swept  up  before  it  all 
the  available  forces  of  the  Confederacy  into  a  great  trap, 
from  which  there  was  no  escape.      But  Sherman  took  care 
not  to  push  fast  or  far  enough  to  drive  Johnston  and  Lee 
close  together.     The  operations  of  the  two  Union  generals 
were   so   timed  as   to   prevent  the   scattered  Confederate 
forces   from    uniting  into    one  army.      One  by  one   they 
were   forced    to   surrender   (Lee    April    9,    and   Johnston 
April  26) ;  and  the  war  was  over. 

746,  The  Armies  on  both  sides  were  large.      The  num 
ber  of  men  called  into  the  Unitm  armies  during  the  war 
was  2,942,748;  and  2,690,401  of  these  entered  the  army, 
some  for  three  months,  some  for  six  months,  and  some 
for   one   year,    two   years,    or   three   years.      The  largest 
number  in  service  at  one  time  was  in   May,   1865  :   it  was 
then    1,000,516,    of   whom   650,000   were   fit   for    active 
service.      The  Union  navy  grew  steadily  larger  until  the 
end  of  the  war,  when  it  numbered  700  vessels,  60  of  them 
ironclads,  and  50,000  sailors.      The  Confederacy  did  not 
need  so  many  men  as  the  Federal  Government,  for  it  had 


432  THE   WAR  FOR    THE  UNION  [1865 

no  conquered  territory  to  garrison,  and  could  move  its 
men  quickly  from  one  army  to  another.  The  total  Con 
federate  force  was  probably  about  1,300,000,  and  the 
largest  number  at  one  time  was  in  January,  1863.  The 
following  table  is  given  from  a  careful  writer,  as  the 
number  at  the  dates  named.  The  Southern  figures  are 
estimates. 

United  States.     Confederacy. 

January  i,   1861 16,367 

July  i,   1 86 1 186,751          150,000 

January  i,   1862 575>9!7          35°> oo° 

January  i,   1863 918,191          690,000 

January  i,   1864 860,737          400,000 

January  i,   1865 959,460          250,000 

March  31,   1865 980,086          175,000 

May  i,   1865 1,000,516 

747.  The  Dead  numbered  about   300,000  on  each  side. 
The  Union   losses  are  known,  and  are  given  below:   the 
Southern  losses  are  still  uncertain.      National  cemeteries 
have  been  laid  out  on  various  battle-fields,  in  which  the 
bodies  of  the  dead   have  been  collected ;  and  many  cities 
and    towns    have    their    soldiers'    monuments.       Liberal 
pensions  are  paid  to  wounded  Union  soldiers,  and  to  the 
families  of  the  dead.1 

748.  The  Cost  of  the  War  cannot  be  figured  up.      The 
tax  receipts  of  the  United  States,   1861-65,  were  about 
$780,000,000,    most   of  which    was    spent    on    the   war; 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  there  was  at  the  end  of  the  war 
a  national  debt  of  $2,850,000,000.      If  we  try  to  add  to 

1  In  the  Union  armies  there  were  killed  in  battle,  44,238;  died  of  wounds, 
49,205;  died  of  disease,  186,216;  suicide,  homicide,  and  executions,  526; 
unknown  causes,  24,184:  total,  304,369.  Of  these  there  were  only  7  execu 
tions.  In  Confederate  prisons,  26,168  are  known  to  have  died,  but  thou 
sands  of  others  have  since  died  of  disease  contracted  during  imprisonment. 
There  are  buried  in  the  national  cemeteries  318,870  bodies;  but  some  ol 
these  were  Confederate  soldiers. 


1865]  LEADING  EVENTS  433 

this  (i)  the  expenses  and  debts  of  States,  cities,  and 
towns;  (2)  the  payments  for  pensions;  (3)  the  expenses 
of  the  Confederacy,  which  are  not  fully  known ;  (4)  the 
destruction  of  private  property  in  the  South  by  Union 
armies,  and  on  the  ocean  by  Confederate  privateers ;  and 
the  destruction  of  productive  energy  in  the  loss  of  men ; 
the  total  cost  of  the  war  passes  beyond  possibility  of 
estimate. 

749.  The  Object  of  this  enormous  expenditure  of  blood 
and  money  by  the  nation  was  not  to  show  which  section 
was   the    stronger,    for   nearly   every    one    knew   before 
hand  that   the  North  was   the  stronger.      It  was  not  to 
show  which  had  the  braver  men,  for  the  soldiers  on  both 
sides  came  out  of  the  war  with  an  equal  respect  for  each 
others'    bravery.       It  was  not    to   satisfy  any  hatred    of 
the    North    against    the   South,    for    there   was    no    such 
thing.      It  was  not  to  abolish  slavery,  though  slavery  was 
abolished  as  a  part  of  the  war.      The  object  of  the  war 
was  to  keep  the  nation  one,  to  prevent  any  future  attempt 
to  secede,  and  to  see  to  it  that  there  should  not  be  two 
nations  in  place  of  one,  waging  wars  with  one  another, 
and  taxing  men,  women,  and  children  to  carry  them  on. 
This  was   the   object  for  which    the    Union    men   fought 
and,  when  necessary,  died:   to  secure  perpetual  peace  and 
a   united   nation   to    their   children   and    their    children's 
children  forever. 

750.  The  Leading   Events  of  Lincoln's   administration, 
including  the  war  for  the  Union,  are  as  follows: 

(U.,  Union  victory;  C.,  Confederate  victory;  Ind.,  indecisive.) 

1861-5  :  Lincoln's  Term  of  Office §  620 

1861:  Fort  Sumter,    S.    C.,    evacuated,  April 

J3  (C.) 622 

Volunteers  called  for  by  the  President, 
April  15 62 


434  THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [1861-2 

1 86 1 :  First  bloodshed  at  Baltimore,  April  19  §  623 
Capture   of   Norfolk   navy  yard,    April 

20  (C.) 649- 

Secession  of  four  border  States,    May 

and  June 626 

Meeting  of  Congress,  July  4 631 

Battle    of    Rich    Mountain,    W.    Va., 

July  ii  (U.) 630 

Battle  of  Bull  Run,  Va.,  July  21  (C.).  632 
Battle  ot  Wilson's  Creek,  Mo.,  August 

10  (C.) 635 

Capture  of  Fort  Hatteras,  N.  C. ,  Aug. 

29  (U.) 636 

Battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  Va.,  Oct.  21  (C.)  634 
Capture  of  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  Nov. 

7  (U.) 636 

Trent  affair,  November  8 638 

1862:  Battle  of  Mill  Spring,  Ky.,  January  19 

(U.) m 640 

Capture  of  Fort  Henry,  Term.,  Feb. 

6  (U.) 640 

Capture  of  Roanoke  Island,  N.  C. , 

Feb.  8  (U.) 652 

Capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  Tenn.,  Feb. 

16  (U.) 640 

Battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.,  March 

5-8  (U.) 647 

Battle  of  Monitor  and  Merrimac,  March 

9(U.) 651 

Battle  of  Pittsburgh  Landing  or  Shiloh, 

Tenn.,  April  6-7  (U.) 642 

Capture  of  Island  Number  Ten,  April 

7(U.) 648 

Capture  of  Fort  Pulaski,  Ga. ,  April 

11  (U.) 652 

Capture   of  New   Orleans,    La.,    April 

25  (U.) 655 

Capture  of  Yorktown,  Va.,  May  4  (U. )  659 
Battle  of  Williamsburgh,  Va.,  May  5 

(Ind.) 659 

Capture  of  Corinth,  Miss. ,  May  30  (U. )  643 

Battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  Va.,  May  31  (U.)  660 


1 862-3]  LEADING  EVENTS  435 

1862:  Jackson's  raid  on  Banks,  Va.,  June  (C.)  §662 
Seven  Days'  Battles,  Va. ,  June  25-July 

i  (Ind.) 663 

Pope's  campaign,  Va. ,  August  (C. ).  .  .  664 
Second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  Va.,  Aug. 

30  (C.) 664 

Capture  of  Harper's    Ferry,    W.    Va., 

Sept.   15  (C.) 665 

Battle  of  Antietam,  Md.,  September 

17  (U.) 666 

Bragg' s  invasion  of  Kentucky,  Sep 
tember 644 

Battle  of  Perryville,  Ky.,  O.t.  8 

(Ind.) * J 644 

Battle  of  Fredericksburgh,  Va. ,  Dec. 

13  (C.) -.  667 

First  attempt  on  Vicksburgh,  Miss., 

Dec.  29  (C.) 680 

Battle  of   Murfreesboro,    Tenn. ,    Dec. 

3 1  to  Jan.   2  (U. ) 645 

1863:  Emancipation  Proclamation,  January  i     669 

Draft  Act  passed,  March  3 693 

Fort  Sumter,  S.  C. ,  attacked  by  iron 
clads,  April  7  (C.) 688 

Grant's  campaign  before  Vicksburgh, 

Miss.,  May  i  to  17  (U.) 682 

Battle  of  Chancellorsville,  Va.,  May 

2-3  (C.) 674 

Battle  of  Weehawken  and  Atlanta,  June 

17  (U.) 688 

Admission  of  West  Virginia,  June  20..  694 
Lee's  second  invasion  of  the  North, 

June 675 

Battle  of  Gettysburgh,  Pa.,  July  1-3 

(U.) 677 

Capture  of  Vicksburgh,  Miss.,  July  4 

(U.) 682 

Battle  of  Helena,  Ark.,  July  4  (U.).  .  .  683 
Capture  of  Port  Hudson,  La.,  July  9 

(U.) 682 

Draft  Riots,  New  York  City,  July 

13-16 693 


436  THE   WAR  FOR    THE   UNION  [1863-4 

1863  :  Morgan's  Ohio  raid,  July §  684 

Battle  of  Chickamauga,  Ga. ,  Sept.  19- 

20  (C.) 685 

Siege  of  Chattanooga,  Tenn. ,  Oct.  and 

Nov 686 

Siege  of  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  Nov.  18-29  686 
Battle  of  Lookout  Mountain,  Tenn., 

Nov.  24-25  (U  ) 687 

1864:  Forrest's  raid,  Miss,  and  Tcnn.,  Feb 
ruary 7 : 7 

Grant  made  lieutenant-general,  March  3  698 
Red  River  expedition,  La.,  April  (C.).  715 
Capture  of  Fort  Pillow,  Tenn.,  April 

12  (C.) 717 

Battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Va.,  May 

5-7  (Ind.) 701 

Battles  at  Spottsylvania  Court-house, 

Va.,  May  8-18  (Ind  ) 701 

Battle  of  Resaca,  Ga.,  May  14-15  (u-)  7°6 
Battle  of  Dallas,  Ga.,  May  25-28  (U.)  706 
Battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  Va.,  June  3  (C. )  702 
Siege  of  Petersburgh,  Va.,  begun,  June  704 
Battle  of  Kearsarge  and  Alabama,  June 

19  (U.) 720 

Battle  of  Kenesaw  Mountain,  Ga., 

June  27  (U.) 7°6 

Battles  before  Atlanta,  Ga.,  July  20- 

28  (U.) ' 709 

Early 's  raid  on  Washington,  July 703 

Battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  Ala.,  August  5 

(U.) 7i8 

Capture  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  September  2 

(U.) 709 

Battle  of  Winchester,  Va.,  September 

19  (U.) 705 

Battle  of  Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  October 

19  (U.) 705 

Admission  of  Nevada,  October  31 ....  726 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea,  Nov.  and 

Dec 7i3 

Battle  of  Franklin,  Tenn.,  November 

30  (U.) 7" 


1864-5]  LEADING  El/ENTS  437 

1864:  Capture  of  Fort  McAllister,  Ga.,  Dec. 


Battle  of  Nashville,    Tenn.,    Dec.   15- 

16  (U.)  ........................      711 

Capture  of  Savannah,    Ga,,  December 

21    (U.)  ........................         7I4 

1865:  Capture  of  Fort  Fisher,  N.  C.,  Jan.  15 

(U.)  ..........................      716 

Sherman's  march  northward,  Feb.  and 

March  .........................      728 

Columbia,    S.  C,,   captured,    February 

17  (U.)  ........................      728 

Charleston,    S.    C.  ,  captured,    Feb.    18 

.(U.)  ..........................  728 

Wilmington,  N.  C.,  captured,  Feb.   21 

(U.)  ..........................  716 

Battle  of  Goldsboro,  N.  C.,  March  19 

(U.)  ..........................  729 

Sheridan's  raid   on   Lynchburgh,  Va., 

March  .........................  731 

Battle  of  Five  Forks,  Va.  ,  April  i  (U.)  732 
Petersburg!!,    Va.,    captured,    April    2 

.  (U.)..-..  .....................  732 

Richmond,  \a.,  captured,  April  3  (U.)  732 

Surrender  of  Lee,  April  9  ...........  733 

Assassination  of  Lincoln,  April  14.  ...  737 

Surrender  of  Johnston,  April  26  ......  734 

Jefferson  Davis  captured,  May  n  (note)  732 

General  surrender,  April  and  May.  .  .  .  734 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Detailed  study  of  a  battle. 

2.  Detailed  study  of  a  campaign. 

3.  The  military  career  of  a  leading  general. 

4-  The  strategic  importance  of  the  Mississippi. 

5.  West  Point  graduates  in  the  war. 

6.  Drafts. 

7.  The  government  of  the  Confederate  States. 

8.  Lincoln  as  a  representative  American. 


438  THE   IV AR  FOR    THE   UNION  [1861-5 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — The  great  series  known  as  War  of  the  Rebellion, 
Official  Records,  still  in  course  of  publication,  and  the  Congres 
sional  documents,  are  the  primary  authorities  for  the  history  of 
the  Civil  War;  but  they  are  difficult  to  use  for  other  than 
detailed  study.  Moore's  Rebellion  Record  is  a  smaller  and  very 
useful  collection.  McPherson's  History  of  the  Rebellion  is  the 
most  important  single  volume.  Many  important  documents 
are  given  in  the  American  Annual  Cydopcedia,  1861-65.  The 
writings  and  memoirs  of  the  principal  actors  are  indispensable: 
among  the  most  important  are  the  collected  works  of  Lincoln, 
Seward,  and  Sumner,  and  the  memoirs  of  Grant,  Sherman,  and 
Sheridan.  The  contemporary  pictures  in  Harper  s  Weekly  and 
Frank  Leslie1  s  Weekly  are  instructive. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  literature  of  the  Civil  War  is 
enormous.  The  best  military  history,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is 
Ropes' s  Story  of  the  Civil  War:  unfortunately  the  narrative 
stops  with  1862.  Of  the  larger  comprehensive  histories,  that 
of  Rhodes  is  the  best.  Dodge's  Bird's-Eye  View  of  Our  Civil 
War  is  the  best  single-volume  account.  The  History  of  the 
Civil  War  by  the  Comte  de  Paris,  Bailies  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War  (Century  Co.),  and  Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War 
(Scribner's  Sons),  are  important.  The  most  elaborate  bio 
graphical  treatment  of  the  period  is  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln. 
There  are  numerous  biographies  of  leaders  on  both  sides,  among 
the  most  important  being  Badeau's  Grant,  Mahan's  Far  r  a  gut, 
and  Cooke's  Robert  E.  Lee  and  Stonewall  Jackson.  The 
volumes  in  the  Great  Commanders  series  are  useful,  but  differ 
much  in  merit. 

The  political  phases  of  Lincoln's  administration  are  treated 
at  length  in  the  histories  of  Schouler,  and  Rhodes,  and  Nicolay 
and  Hay's  Lincoln.  To  these  should  be  added  Callender's 
Thaddeus  Stevens,  Barnes's  Thurlow  Weed,  Gorham's  Stanton, 
Bigelow's  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  C.  F.  Adams's  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  Greeley's  American  Conflict,  and  Elaine's  Twenty  Years 
of  Congress.  On  the  slavery  issue  see  also  Wilson's  Slave  Power 
and  Garrison's  William  Lloyd  Garrison.  The  American  Annual 
Cyclopedia  has  marked  value  for  reference. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LITERATURE. — Moore's  The  Civil  War  in  Song 
and  Story;  G.  C.  Eggleston's  American  War  Ballads  and  Lyrics; 
W.  G,  Sirnms's  War  Poetry  of  the  South;  Alcott's  Hospital 


1 86 1-5]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  439 

Sketches;  J.  E.  Cooke's  Hilt  to  Hilt  and  Wearing  of  the  Gray; 
Cable's  War  Diary  of  a  Union  Woman  in  the  South;  C.  C. 
Coffin's  Winning  his  Way;  Stephen  Crane's  Red  Badge  of 
Courage;  M.  E.  M.  Davis 's  In  War  Time  at  La  Rose  Blanche; 
W.  L.  Goss's/^//  J.  C.  Harris's  On  the  Plantation;  S.  Weir 
Mitchell's  In  War  Time  and  Roland  Blake;  T.  N.  Page's  Two 
Little  Confederates  and  Among  the  Camps;  E.  C.  Stedman's 
Alice  of  Monmouth;  Townsend's  Katy  of  Catoctin;  Bryant's  Our 
Country' s  Call,  The  Death  of  Slavery,  and  Abraham  Lincoln; 
Holmes's  In  War  Time;  Longfellow's  The  Cumberland;  Lowell's 
Harvard  Commemoration  Ode  and  Memories  Positum;  T.  B. 
Read's  Sheridan's  Ride;  Whittier's  In  War  Time;  Whitman's 
My  Captain. 


CHAPTER    XX 
RECONSTRUCTION 

(I)  JOHNSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  1865-9 

ANDREW  JOHNSON,  Tennessee,  Vice-President  and  President. 

751.  The  New  President. — Andrew  Johnson,  elected 
Vice-President  with  Lincoln,  became  President  at  Lin 
coln's  death.  He  was 
from  Tennessee,  a  "  poor 
white, ' '  who  had  worked 
his  way  upward  until  he 
had  been  sent  to  Con 
gress,  had  become  Gov 
ernor  of  his  State,  and 
was  then  sent  to  the 
United  States  Senate. 
He  was  an  outspoken 
Union  man,  who  held  to 
the  Union  even  after  his 
State  seceded;  and,  al 
though  he  had  always 
been  a  Democrat,  the 
Republicans  nominated 
him  in  1864  in  order  to 
get  the  votes  of  those 
Democrats  who  sup 
ported  the  war.  In  this 
they  were  only  repeating  the  mistake  of  Tyler's  case 

440 


1865]  DISBANDING    THE   ARMY  441 

(§  500).  Johnson  wished  to  punish  the  rich  and  influen 
tial  Southern  leaders  ;  but  he  cared  little  about  the  negroes 
who  had  been  set  free  by  the  war.  The  Republicans 
were  determined  to  protect  the  freedmen,  even  if  they  had 
to  punish  the  seceding  States  in  order  to  do  it;  while 
Johnson  was  determined  that  the  States  should  not  be 
punished.  Johnson  was  a  passionate  man,  and  hasty  of 
speech ;  and  he  soon  managed  to  bring  about  a  quarrel 
with  Congress,  which  lasted  throughout  his  term  of  office. 
His  term  had  scarcely  begun  before  every  one  saw  what 
a  terrible  misfortune  it  had  been  to  lose  the  wise,  kindly, 
large-hearted  and  large-minded  Lincoln  when  the  country 
needed  him  so  much. 

( I )  Reconstruction. 

752,  Disbanding  the  Army. — Many  persons  had  thought 
that  it  would  be  very  dangerous  to  break  up  the  armies 
at  the  end  of  the  war;  that  the  million  of  soldiers  would 
neither  seek  nor  find  work,  but  would  join  in  lawless  com 
panies  for  robbery.      Nothing  of  the  kind  followed.      The 
men,  except  about  50,000,  who  were  retained  as  a  stand 
ing  army,   were  paid  off  and  sent  home   at  the  rate  of 
300,000   a  month.      The   old  soldiers  turned   out   to  be 
better  lawyers,  editors,  managers,  and  workmen  than  they 
had  been   before  the  war,  through  the  habits  of  prompt 
obedience  learned  in  the  army. 

753,  The  Problem  of  Reconstruction. — Some  of  the  most 
difficult  questions  of  American   history  presented   them 
selves  in  the  six  years  from    1865   to    1871,  in  which  the 
American  people  tried  to   straighten   out  a  state  of  affairs 
which  had  been  completely  tangled  by  the  Civil  War  and 
its  results.      The  first  question  was,  What  should  be  done 
with  the  voters  of  the  seceding  States  ?     The  Northern 


442  RECONSTRUCTION  |_l865 

States  were  each  divided  politically  among"  two  nearly 
equal  parties,  one  part}'  controlling  some  States  and  the 
other  part}'  controlling  the  others.  But  Southern  voters 
had  for  years  thought  of  hardly  anything  in  politics  except 
the  defence  of  slavery.  All  the  Southern  States  were  thus 
in  the  habit  of  acting  together:  they  formed  what  is  now 
often  called  a  "solid  South."  The}-  had  so  nearly  a 
majority  of  both  Houses  of  Congress  that  a  very  little  help 
from  parts  of  the  North  would  at  once  give  them  control 
of  the  government,  and  the  power  to  make  laws  as  to  the 
national  debt,  pensions,  and  other  expenses  of  the  war. 
And  yet  there  was  no  express  law  to  prevent  them  from 
taking  part  at  once  in  the  government.  It  was,  in  fact, 
equally  hard  to  let  them  in  or  to  keep  them  out. 

754.  The  President's  Feeling. — President  Johnson  was 
always  a  hearty  Union  man.  lie  had  expressed  great 
anxiety  to  hang  some  of  the  Confederate  leaders,  and  his 
first  act  as  President  was  to  offer  large  rewards  for  the 
capture  of  Davis  and  other  leaders,  on  the  charge  of 
planning  Lincoln's  murder.  But  Johnson  had  been  a 
Southern  "poor  white  "  :  his  feeling  was  altogether  one 
of  hostility  to  the  richer  Southerners  who  had  brought  about 
the  war;  and  he  had  no  great  anxiety  for  the  protection 
of  the  "freedmen."  He  was  what  was  called  a  War 
Democrat:  that  is,  he  was  anxious  to  maintain  the  Union, 
but  equally  anxious  that  the  States  should  each  be  free 

from  interference  by  the  Union.      It  was  certain  from  the 

f 

\  <•  Freedmen"  was  the  usual  name  for  the  former  slaves,  set  free  by  the 
war.  During  the  war  they  were  often  called  "contrabands."  a  name  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  General  Butler.  Runaway  slaves  had  come  into 
his  camp,  and  the  law  directed  him  to  return  them  to  their  owners,  a  thing 
which  he  was  determined  not  to  do.  He  got  over  the  difficulty  by  declar 
ing  the  slaves  "  contraband  of  war,"  like  gunpowder,  or  any  other  valuable 
war  material,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to  pass  into  the  enemy's  posses 
sion. 


1865]  JOHNSON'S  POLICY  443 

beginning1   that   ho    would    never   consent    "to    keep   the 
seceding  States  out. 

755.  The   Southern   State   Governments,  when  Johnson 
became    President,    were    in    complete    confusion.       The 
Union  cavalry  forces   were    ranging    through    the  South, 
capturing  governors  and  other  leading  men,  and   sending 
them   to  forts   for    safe-keeping.      They  were    eventually 
released  after  a  short  imprisonment ;   but  at  the  time  no 
one  was  quite  sure  that  the  Confederate  leaders  would  not 
all  be  hanged   or  shot  for  treason.      Every  Southern  man 
who  could  have  been  of  service  in  government  was  only 
anxious  to  keep  out  of  the  way,  and  almost  all  semblance 
of  government  disappeared.      The    first   business  was  to 
<jet    some    form     of    crovernment     that     would    maintain 

o  o 

order. 

756.  The  President's  Plan  of  reconstruction  was,   first, 
to  appoint  provisional,  or  temporary,  governors  for  each 
State.      These  governors  called  conventions  of  delegates, 
elected  by  the  white  people,  the  former  voters.      These 
conventions,    when    they    met,    did    three    things:     they 
repealed  or   declared    void   the    ordinances   of  secession, 
promised  never  to  pay  any  debt  incurred  in  supporting  the 
Confederacy,    and    ratified    the    Thirteenth    Amendment, 
abolishing  slaver}',  which  Congress  had  proposed  carl}'  in 
1865.      Before  the  end  of  the  year    1865,  all  the  govern 
ments  of  the  seceding  States  had  been  reorganized  accord- 

.  ing  to  the  President's  plan,  or  "  my  policy,"  as  he  often 
called  it.  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas 
had  already  been  reorganized,  in  much  the  same  manner, 
under  President  Lincoln,  and  were  not  interfered  with. 

757.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  forever  abolishing 
slavery,  having  been  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  States, 
was  declared  a  part  of  the  Constitution  in  December, 
1865.  It  was  necessary  because  the  Emancipation 


444  RECONSTRUCTION  [1866 

Proclamation  (§  669)  had  only  freed  the  slaves,  but  did 
not  prevent  a  new  establishment  of  slavery. 

758.  The   Treatment  of  the   Freedmen    was    a  difficult 
matter  to  manage.      The  Southern  people  did  not  believe 
that  the  freedmen  would  willingly  work  now  that  they  no 
longer  had  the  slave-driver  to  force  them  to  it.     The  laws 
passed  by  the  new  governments  of  the  seceding  States 
were,  therefore,  usually  designed  to  force  the  freedmen  to  ,. 
work  under  penalty  of  being  declared  vagrants  and  sent 
to  jail  and  hard  labor.      To  most  of  the  Northern  people 
this  looked  very  much  like  setting  up  slavery  again  under 
a  new  name ;   and  their  representatives  in  Congress,  when 
Congress  met  in  December,   1865,  refused  for  the  time  to 
admit  any  members  from  the  seceding  States. 

759.  A  New  Issue  was  thus  brought  into  politics.      The 
President  thought  that  the   Republican   majority  in   Con 
gress  had  no  more  right  to  keep  out  members  from  the 
seceding  States  than  those  States  had  to  attempt  to  leave 
the  Union.      He  was  supported  by  the  Northern  Demo 
crats,  and  also  by  the  Southern  people,  who  did  not  count 
for  much,  however,  so  long  as  their  representatives  were 
not  admitted.     The  Republicans  had  a  two-thirds  majority 
in  both  Houses  of  Congress,  sufficient  to  pass   laws  over 
the  President's  veto.     They  had  not  yet  formed  any  plan: 
they  were    only  determined  not  to   admit   the    Southern 
members  until  the  safety  of  the  freedmen  should  be  made 
certain.      In  this  they  were  supported  by  the  Republican 
party  of  the  North ;   and  the  whole  struggle  turned  upon 
the  elections  in  1 866  for  the  Congress  which  was  to  meet 
in  1867. 

760.  The  Congressional  Elections  of  1 866  resulted  in  the 
complete  success  of  the  Republicans.      They  were  to  have 
the  same  two-thirds  majority  in  the  next  Congress,  and 
for   the   next  two   years   could   pass   such   laws   as   they 


1 868]  RECONSTRUCTION  ACTS  445 

thought  best,  without  any  obstruction  from  the  President's 
veto.  They  had  now  more  fully  formed  their  plan  of 
reconstruction,  and  were  able  to  carry  it  into  effect. 
Tennessee  was  readmitted  to  the  Union  in  1866,  and  its 
members  were  received  by  Congress.  The  State  had 
been  reorganized  in  such  a  manner  that  the  rights  of  the 
freedmen  seemed  quite  secure.  The  plarpof  Congress 
had  two  leading  purposes :  the  freedmen  were*  to  vote ; 
and  the  Confederate  leaders  were  not  to  vote.  These 
purposes  were  to  be  reached  by  putting  all  the  seceding 
States  under  military  governors,  who  should  call  new 
conventions  to  form  State  governments.  The  power  to 
vote  for  delegates  to  these  conventions  was  given  to  the 
freedmen,  but  not  to  the  leading  Confederates.  If  the 
new  forms  of  government  should  allow  freedmen  to  vote, 
and  if  the  new  governments  should  ratify  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  (§  763),  which  denied  to  the  leading  Con 
federates  the  power  to  hold  office,  Congress  would  admit 
the  Southern  Senators  and  Representatives. 

761.  The  Reconstruction  Acts  were  passed  by  Congress 
in  March,   1867,  over  the  veto  of  the  President.      They 
embodied  the  plan  of  Congress,   as  just  explained ;  and 
the   President  executed  them  by  appointing  the  military 
governors.      These    governors,    supported   by  portions  of 
the  army,  took  care  that  in  forming  the  new  governments 
freedmen  should  be  allowed  to  vote,  and  leading  Confed 
erates  should  be  forbidden  to  vote. 

762.  The  Work  of  Reconstruction  went  on  through  the 
years  1867  and  1868;   and  in  June,   1868,  six  States  were 
readmitted    to     representation     in    Congress :     Alabama, 
Arkansas,  Florida,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolina.     It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  the  Recon 
struction    Acts    were    bitterly   disliked    by   the    Southern 
whites,  for  they  made  the  negroes,  who  had  been  slaves 


446  RECONSTRUCTION  [1868 

but  two  years  before,  equal  or  superior  to  their  former 
masters.  It  was  hoped  in  the  North  that  the  freedmen 
would  be  made  secure  by  having  the  right  to  vote  for 
representatives  in  the  State  governments.  We  shall  see 
hereafter  how  this  resulted  (§  789).  But  for  the  first  few 
years  the  whites  were  powerless,  and  the  freedmen  had 
their  full  share  in  the  government.  Four  States,  Georgia, 
Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia,  refused  to  yield,  and 
were  not  readmitted  until  1870  (§  788).  Tennessee  had 
been  admitted  in  1866  (§  760). 

763.  The  Fourteenth  Amendment,  proposed  by  Congress 
in  1866,  was  ratified  and  became  a  part  of  the  Constitu 
tion  in  July,  1868.      It  provided  that  no  State  should  take 
away  the  privileges  of  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  that 
the  higher  class  of  Confederate  office-holders  should  hold 
no  office  until  pardoned  by  Congress ;  that  the  debt  of  the 
United  States  should  be  paid  in  full ;  and  that  the  Con 
federate  debt  should  never  be  paid.      By  "privileges  of 
citizens  ' '    was   meant   the   right   of  the   freedmen   to   be 
treated  exactly  like  whites  in  making  and  enforcing  laws. 

764.  The  Reconstructed  Governments  at  once  took  con 
trol  of  their  States.     Their  State  constitutions,  as  has  been 
stated,  allowed  the  freedmen  to  vote,  while  they  forbade 
the  leading  Confederates  to  vote  or  hold  office  until  par 
doned   by   Congress.      The    negroes,    with    a    few   white 
leaders,  voted  together;   the  majority  of  the  whites  also 
voted   together;    and   thus   the  voting  population  of  the 
seceding  States  was  divided  on  "the  color  line."      The 
unhappy  results  were  very  soon  visible  (§  789). 

(2  )   Impeach mcnt. 

765.  The  President  and  Congress — While  Congress  was 
thus  successfully  carrying  out  its  plan   of  reconstruction, 


TENURE   OF  OFFICE  ACT 


447 


its  quarrel  with  the  President  was  steadily  growing  more 
bitter.  Bill  after  bill  was  passed  by  Congress,  vetoed  by 
the  President,  and  at  once  passed  over  the  veto.  The 
President  was  a  passionate  man  and  hasty  of  speech.  He 
believed  that  the  Republican  majority  in  Congress  was 
keeping  the  Southern  members  out  only  in  order  to  be 
able  to  pass  bills  over  his  veto ;  and  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
express  his  dislike  of  Congress  in  public  speeches.  Of 
course  this  made  Congress  still  more  ready  to  pass  bills 
which  were  disagreeable  to  him. 

766.  The  Tenure  of  Office  Act  was  passed  by  Congress 
in  March,  1867,  over  the  President's  veto.  It  forbade 
the  President  to  remove 
the  higher  grades  of 
office-holders  without 
asking  and  receiving  the 
consent  of  the  Senate. 
Johnson,  believing  that 
the  Constitution  gave 
Congress  no  power  to 
pass  such  an  act,  deter 
mined  to  disobey  it.  He 
removed  Stanton,  the 
Secretary  of  War,  and 
when  the  Senate  refused 

tO      Consent      tO      the      re-  EDWIN  M.  STANTON. 

moval,  the  President  paid  no  attention  to  the  refusal,  and 
ordered  Stanton 's  successor  to  take  possession  of  the 
office. 

767.  The  Impeachment  of  the  President  followed  at  once. 
The  House  of  Representatives  voted  to  impeach  him ;  that 
is,  to  accuse  him  of  having  disobeyed  the  laws,  and  oi 
being  unfit  to  be  President.  An  impeachment  must  be 
tried  by  the  Senate,  and  it  is  necessary  that  two-thirds  of 


448  RECONSTRUCTION  [1868 

the  Senators  should  vote  to  sustain  the  charges  in  order 
to  convict  the  accused.  In  this  case  there  was  a  Ion"- 

o 

trial  before  the  Senate,  and  the  vote  was  35  for  to  19 
against  conviction.  This  was  not  a  two-thirds  vote,  and 
the  President  was  acquitted. 

768.  The  Presidential  Election  of  1868  turned  on  Recon 
struction,   as  it   had  been    managed  by  Congress.      The 
Republicans    supported    it,    and    nominated    Grant,    and 
Schuyler  Colfax,   of   Indiana.      The  Democrats  opposed 
it,  and  nominated   Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York,  and 
Frank  P.  Blair,  of  Missouri.      The  Republicans  were  suc 
cessful,  and  Grant  and  Colfax  were  elected.1 

(3)   Internal  Affairs. 

769.  The   National   Debt,  at  the  end  of  the  war,   was 
about  $2,850,000,000  (§  748).      Other  governments  have 
debts  as  large,  or  larger;   but  they  do  not  always  feel  it 
necessary  to  pay  them  promptly.     The  American  people, 
on  the  contrary,  now  attacked  their  debt  as  vigorously  as 
if  it  had  been  a  hostile  army  in  the  field.      Taxes  on  im 
ported  goods  were  not  decreased  for  fear  of  foreign  com 
petition  in  manufactures ;   and  whatever  money  could  be 
spared  out  of  the  large  receipts  of  the  government  was 
applied  to  paying  off  the  debt.      Before  the  armies  were 
quite  disbanded,    $30,000,000  had    been  paid;    and  this 
policy  continued  to  be  perseveringly  followed  up. 

770.  Mexico,  at  the  end  of  the  war,  was  still  occupied 
by    French    troops,    against    the    will    of   the    Mexicans 
(§  695).      The    United   States   now   began   to   urge   their 
withdrawal  in  more  decided  language,  and  France  con- 

1  Of  the  294  electoral  votes,  Grant  and  Colfax  received  214,  and  Sey 
mour  and  Blair  80.  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia  were  not  allowed 
to  vote,  as  they  had  not  yet  been  u  reconstructed  "  and  readmitted. 


1867]  INTERNAL   AFFAIRS  449 

scntcd  to  take  them  away.  The  United  States  had  no 
objection  to  Maximilian's  remaining  as  emperor,  if  the 
Mexicans  wished  it.  He  refused  to  leave  with  the  French 
troops,  and,  in  1867,  was  captured  and  shot  by  the 
Mexicans.  The  United  States  asked  that  his  life  should 
be  spared,  but  the  request  was  refused. 

771.  The  Fenians  were  a  body  of  men  of  Irish  birth  who 
felt  that  they  had  grievances  against  Great  Britain.     Most 
of  them   had   served   in   the   army,    had   grown   fond   of 
soldiering,  and  now  wanted  "a  brush  with  the  British." 
Canada   was   a  part   of   the    British   Empire,    and    about 
1,500  of  the.  Fenians  invaded   it  in   1866   from   Buffalo. 
As  there  was  no  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  Americans  could  not  be  allowed  to  make  war  on 
their  own  account;  and  the  President  promptly  interfered, 
and  stopped  the  movement. 

772.  The  Atlantic  Telegraph. — The  telegraph  had  not 
been  in  operation  long  before  it  was  found  that  lines  could 
be  worked  under  water.      This  suggested  the  idea  of  a 
line   from   America  to  Europe,  over  the  flat  bed  of  the 
Atlantic    Ocean    between    Ireland    and     Newfoundland. 
Such  a  line  had  been  laid  (1857),  but  failed  to  work  long. 
It  was    now  tried  again,    and    proved  a    success   (1866). 
Other  cables  of  the  kind  have  since  been  laid,  so  that  it 
is  now  hardly  possible  that  any  accident  should  entirely 
break  off  telegraphic  communication  between  the  United 
States  and  Europe. 

773.  Alaska    was    bought    from     Russia    in     1867    for 
$7,200,000.      As  it  is  the   last  addition   on  the  mainland 
of  North  America,    a  table  is  given  here,    showing   the 
original  territory  of  the  United  States,  and  the  successive 
additions. 


450                                      RECONSTRUCTION  [1869 

Square  Miles. 

United  States  in  1783  (§  263) 827,844 

Louisiana,   1803  (§  334) i,  171,931 

Florida,   1819  (§414) 59,268 

Texas,  1845  (§  5l6) 37^,  133 

Mexican  Cession,  1848  (§  543)-  •  545,7^3 

Gadsden  Purchase,   1853  (§  544) 45,535 

Alaska,  1867  (§  773) 577,39° 


Total  in  1894 3,603,884 

774.  Nebraska. — Nebraska,  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  pur 
chase  (§§  334,  5/3),  was  admitted  as  a  State  (1867),  with 
the  provision  that  it  should  allow  negroes  to  vote. 

(II)  GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:  1869-77 


ULYSSES  S.  GKAXT.  111.,  President. 


(  SCHUYLER  COLKAX.  Ind.,  Vice- President,  1869-73. 
"|  HENRY  WILSON,  Mass.,  Vice- President,  1873-77. 


(i)  Foreign  Affairs. 

775.  The  New  President.— General    Ulysses  S.   Grant, 
who  left  his  place  as  head  of  the  army  to  become  Presi 
dent  in    1869,  was  then   nearly  fifty  years  old,  and  in  the 
prime  and  vigor  of  life.      As  a  general,  his  strong  point 
had  been  his  determination,  and  it  was  on  this  that  the 
country  relied  in   making  him   President.      It  wanted  as 
President  a  man  who  would  hold   everything  that  could 
be   held   of  what  had   been   secured   by  the   war,  in   the 
supremacy  of  the  national   authority  and  in  the  rights  of 
the  freedmen ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  name  any  one  who 
would  have  done  this  work  better  than  Grant. 

776.  The  Alabama   Claims  were  an    outgrowth  of  the 
Civil   War.      That   every   nation   was   bound   to    prevent 
persons  living  in  its  territory  from  waging  war  against  a 
friendly  nation  was  the  claim  of  the  United  States.     Great 
Britain   had   not   been   properly    careful    to    prevent   the 


1871]  THE    TREATY  OF   WASHINGTON  45 l 

Alabama  and  other  Confederate  privateers  from  escaping 
to  sea  (§  672).  Hence  our  government  maintained  that 
Great  Britain  ought  now  to  pay  for  at  least  part  of  the 
damage  done  by  them.  The  answer  of  Great  Britain  was 
that  there  had  been  no  laws,  at  that  time,  under  which 
the  government  could  seize  the  privateers ;  but  that 
matters  would  be  better  arranged  in  future.  To  this  the 
United  States  answered  that  Great  Britain  was  still  bound 
to  pay  damages  for  her  neglect  to  pass  the  needful  laws 
in  due  season. 

777.  The  Treaty  of  Washington,  in  1 87  i ,  ended  the  long 
dispute  between  the  two  countries.      It  referred  all  matters 
in  dispute  between  Great   Britain  and  the  United  States 
to  arbitrators,  or  umpires.      The  Alabama  claims  were  to 
be  decided  by  five  arbitrators,  to  be  appointed  by  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Brazil. 
The  arbitrators  met  at  Geneva,  in   Switzerland,  in    1872, 
heard  the  evidence    and    arguments  on    both   sides,    and 
decided  that  Great  Britain  should  pay  $15,500,000  to  the 
United  States  for  the  damage  done.      The   Northwestern 
boundary,    between  Vancouver's   Island  and  the  United 
States,  was  still  doubtful  and  disputed   (§  523);   and  the 
treaty  of  Washington   left  the  decision  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.      He  decided  in  favor  of  the  boundary  as  the 
United  States  had    claimed   it.      The  Canadian  fisheries 
had   also   caused   disputes.      Great    Britain   claimed   that 
American    fishermen    made    use    of  the    shores    near   the 
fisheries,  and  that  the  United   States  ought  to  pay  for  this 
privilege.      The  treaty  of  Washington   referred  this  ques 
tion  to  another  board  of  arbitrators,  whose  decision  was 
that  the   United   States  should   pay  $5,,  500,000  to  Great 
Britain. 

778.  San   Domingo,   the    eastern   half  of  the   island   of 
Hayti,    is  a  republic,    inhabited  chiefly  by  negroes.      Its 


452  RECONSTRUCTION  [1869 

rulers  were  anxious,  and  its  people  were  willing-,  to  be 
annexed  to  the  United  States.  A  treaty  of  annexation 
was  agreed  upon  in  1869,  but  it  provoked  great  opposi 
tion  in  the  United  States,  for  it  would  have  brought  in  a 
great  number  of  ignorant  Voters,  of  whom  the  country 
had  already  enough  to  take  care  of.  The  United  States 
Senate  refused  to  confirm  the  treaty,  and  it  fell  through. 

779.  The  Virginius  was  an  American  vessel  which,  in 
1873,  was  carrying  supplies  to   Cuba,  to  help  insurgents 
against  Spain.     The  business  was  unlawful,  and  the  vessel 
was  captured  on   the  ocean  by  a  Spanish  war-vessel  and 
taken  to  Cuba.      The  Spanish  authorities  at  once  put  the 
crew  and  passengers  on  trial,  and  shot  a  number  of  them 
who  were  adjudged  guilty.      This  harsh  punishment  ex 
cited  great  indignation  in  the  United  States,   and  there 
was  some  danger  of  war ;   but  the  government  of  Spain 
succeeded  in  stopping  the  bloody  work  of  its  agents  in 
Cuba.      Those  of  the  prisoners  who  were  still  alive  were 
sent  to  Spain,  and  were  released  after  an  imprisonment. 

(2)   Internal  Affairs. 

780.  Grant's  First  Administration  (1869-73)  was  marked 
by  general  prosperity.      The  production  of  gold  and  silver 
in    the   Pacific    States   and    Territories  increased  rapidly. 
Agriculture  was  flourishing,  for  wars  and  bad  harvests  in 
Europe  made   temporarily  a  great  market  for  American 
grain   and   cattle.      New   agricultural    regions   in    the    far 
West  began  to  be  settled.      Railroads  were  being  built  in 
every  direction.      More  miles  of  railroad  were  built  in  the 
United  States  during  these  four  years  than  had  been  built 
in   any  other  country  of  the  world   during   all  the  years 
past.      Indeed,  more  were  built  than  were  yet  necessary, 
for  every  man  who  had   money  to  use  was  eager  to  share 
in  the  profits  of  railroad-building. 


THE  PACIFIC  RAILROADS  453 

781.  Grant's  Second  Administration  (1873-77)  was  the 
opposite     of   the     first.        Extravagant    railroad-building 
brought  on  a  financial  panic,  which  began  in    1873   and 
did  not  come  to  an  end  until  about  1879.     Many  railroads 
had  been  built  in  parts  of  the  country  where  they  did  not 
pay  interest  on  the  expense  of  building  them.      As  soon 
as  those  who  had  built  them  began  to  wish  to  sell,  nobody 
wished  to  buy.      Money  became  scarce ;   many  great  for 
tunes   were    lost;    and    there    was    general    distress.      In 
addition  to  financial  troubles,  there  were  many  political 
scandals  (§  794),  ending  in   a  dangerous  disputed  election 
(§  79&)>  so  that  there  have  been  few  periods  in  our  history 
when  the  general  feeling  about  the  future  has  been  more 
gloomy  than  during  this  administration. 

782.  The  Census  of  1870  showed  a  population  of  38,- 
558,371,    an   increase   of  7,000,000    since    1860   (§  588). 
At  previous  rates,  in  time  of  peace,  the  increase  should 
have  been  about   10,000,000;   but  the  war,  with  its  loss 
of  life,   decrease  of  immigration,   and  general   confusion, 
had   made  the  difference.      Most  of  the  Southern   States 
had  hardly  any  increase. 

783.  The  Pacific   Railroads. — The  Central  Pacific  rail 
road,  from  Omaha  to  San   Francisco,   was  completed  in 
1869.      It  had  been  begun  in  1862,  during  the  heat  of  the 
war,  and  Congress  had  assisted  it  by  giving  the  company 
public  lands,  and  by  promising  to  pay  the  interest  on  its 
bonds  if  it  should  be  unable  to  do  so.      The  completion 
of  this  railroad  made  it  possible  for  the  traveller  to  cross 
the  continent  in  a  week ;   and  an  easy  passage  was  pro 
vided   for  mails   and   merchandise   between   Europe   and 
Asia.      Americans  had  made  a  substitute  for  the  ' '  north 
west  passage,"    sought  for    by  early  discoverers   (§  21). 
The   Northern   Pacific   railroad  was   completed   in    1883. 
It  runs  from  Duluth  and  St.  Paul   through  North  Dakota 


45  4  RECONS  TRUCTION  [1871 

to  Puget  Sound,  where  it  meets  the  lines  running  down 
the  coast.  A  number  of  other  lines  running  to  the  Pacific 
have  since  then  been  constructed,  so  that  the  railway  in 
tercommunication  between  east  and  west  has  been  greatly 
facilitated. 

784.  Great  Fires  were  numerous  during  the  years  1871 
and  1872.      Chicago  was  burned  in  October,  1871.      This 
was  the  greatest  fire  in   modern   times.      It  began  in  the 
poorer  part  of  the  city,  and  was  hurried  by  a  high  wind 
into  the  richest  portion,   among  banks,  business  houses, 
and  the  handsomest  of  the  private  residences.      When  it 
ceased  burning,  on  the   third   da}',   100,000  people  were 
homeless,  $200,000,000  in  property  had  been  destroyed, 
and  for  miles  along  the  lake  front  there  were  only  ruins. 
In  the  same  month  great  forest-fires  swept  over  Wiscon 
sin,  and  more  than  1,500  persons  were  burned  to  death. 
In  November,   1872,  a  large  part  of  Boston  was  burned, 
with  a  loss  of  $70,000,000.      The  news  of  each  of  these 
disasters  had  hardly  been  telegraphed  when  train-loads  of 
provisions  and  supplies  were  started  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  the  place  where  they  were   needed.      Rebuild 
ing  began  at  once;   and  Chicago  and   Boston  soon  rose 
from  their  ruins,  finer  cities  than  before  their  misfortune. 

785.  Indian  Troubles  were  quite  numerous  during  Grant's 
second  administration.      The  Modoc   Indians,  living  near 
Klamath  Lake,  in  southern  Oregon,  were  ordered  by  the 
government  to  go  to  another  reservation  ;  but  they  refused 
to  go,  and  killed  the  peace  commissioners  sent  to  them. 
Their  country,    the    ' '  lava-beds, ' '   was   a  region   of  old 
volcanoes,   with  underground   passages   miles  in   length ; 
and  it  was  not  until  1873,  after  nearly  a  year's  fighting, 
that  the  troops  could  drive  them  out  of  their  hiding-places. 
The  Sioux  Indians,  under  Sitting  Bull,  were  also  trouble 
some.      In  1876,  they  were  gradually  driven  toward  the 


1871]  THE  END   Oh'  RECONSTRUCTION  455 

Big  Horn  River,  in  southern  Montana.  Here  General 
Custer,  with  a  single  cavalry  regiment,  rashly  charged 
the  whole  tribe,  and  he  and  all  his  men  were  killed. 
Fresh  troops  afterward  arrived,  and  drove  the  Indians  into 
British  America. 

786.  Colorado The  thirty-eighth  State  admitted  to  the 

Union  was  Colorado  (1876).      It  was  formed  partly  from 
the    Louisiana    purchase    and    partly   from    the    Mexican 
cession  (§  543). 

787.  The  Centennial,  or  hundredth,  anniversary  of  the 
Declaration  of   Independence    was    celebrated    in    1876. 
As  a  part  of  the  celebration,  an  International  Exposition 
was  held  at  Philadelphia  from  May  until  November.      In 
its  great  buildings  were  collected  specimens  of  the  pro 
ductions,    manufactures,    and  arts    of  every   country.      It 
was  visited  by  nearly  ten  million  people,  and  served   ex 
cellently  as  a  general  educator. 

(3)    The  End  of  Reconstruction. 

788.  Reconstruction   was    completed    in    1870,    by   the 
readmission  of  Georgia,  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia 
(§  762),  which  hitherto  had  not  been  willing  to  change 
their  forms  of  government  so  as  to  meet  the  wishes  of 
Congress.      Early  in  1871  all  the  States  were  represented 
in  Congress,  for  the  first  time  since  1861. 

789.  The   Fifteenth   Amendment  was  ratified  by  three- 
fourths  of  the  States,  and  became  a  part  of  the  Constitu 
tion  in  1870.     It  had  been  proposed  by  Congress  the  year 
before.      It  forbade  the  United   States,  or  any  State,  to 
prevent   any  person   from   voting  because   of  his    "race, 
color,    or  previous  condition  of  servitude."      Negro  suf 
frage  was  thus,  apparently,  ensured.      It  was  hoped  that 
the   Southern   negroes  would   now  be  able   to   take  care 
of  themselves  by  electing  representatives  in  their  State 


456  RECONSTRUCTION  [1871 

governments.  Unfortunately,  the  freedmen  were  the 
most  ignorant  part  of  the  population.  It  had  been  part 
of  the  law  of  slavery  to  keep  them  ignorant  and  to  make 
them  afraid  of  their  masters.  They  were  still  so  ignorant 
and  timid  that  they  "knew  but  one  way  of  voting,  and  that 
was  to  vote  together  and  against  the  whites.  State  legis 
latures  have  the  power  to  lay  taxes,  and  all  the  Southern 
property  on  which  taxes  were  laid  belonged  to  the  whites. 
The  whites  therefore  used  every  means  to  keep  the 
negroes  from  voting,  for  fear  negro  legislatures  would 
make  the  taxes  unbearably  heavy.  Sometimes  they  paid 
their  negro  workmen  to  stay  at  home  on  election-day; 
sometimes  they  threatened  to  discharge  them  if  they 
voted ;  and  thus,  in  several  of  the  States,  the  whites  soon 
got  control  of  the  State  governments  again.1 

790,  Disorder  in  the  South  soon  became  very  common 
in  those  States  in  which  the  bribes  or  threats  above-men 
tioned  were  not  enough  to  keep  the  legislatures  out  of  the 
control   of  the  freedmen.      The  whites  asserted  that  the 
reconstructed  governments  made  bad  laws  and  stole  the 
public  moneys.      The  reconstructed  governments  asserted 
that  the  whites  resisted  the  laws  by  violence,  and  whipped 
or  killed   negroes  in   order  to  prevent  them  from  voting. 
Both  assertions  seem  to  have  been  correct.     The  disorders 
were  worst  in  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  and 
Louisiana,    but    they  extended   more   or    less    to   all    the 
seceding  States. 

791.  The   Reconstructed   Governments  appealed   to   the 
President  for  help.      The  Constitution  and  laws  provide 

1  "Carpet-bagger"  was  a  name  given  by  Southern  whites  to  Northern  men 
who  settled  in  the  South  and  voted  with  the  negroes.  The  name  was  given 
to  them  because  they  were  said  to  have  brought  nothing  but  their  carpet- 
bags  with  them  from  the  North.  Many  of  them  were  former  Union  soldiers. 
A  "  scalawag  "  was  a  native  Southern  white  who  voted  with  the  negroes, 
and  was  considered  a  traitor  by  the  whites. 


1876]  FAILURE  OF  RECONSTRUCTION  457 

that  a  State  government  which  cannot  put  down  disorder 
within  its  limits  may  obtain  support  from  the  President. 
President  Grant  sent  troops  to  the  assistance  of  the  States 
which  asked  for  it,  and  thus  kept  their  governments  in 
existence.  Nevertheless,  in  one  State  after  another,  the 
whites  succeeded  in  carrying  the  elections  and  getting 
quiet  control  of  the  State  government ;  and  the  Federal 
troops  were  then  no  longer  asked  for.  In  this  manner, 
before  the  end  of  Grant's  second  term,  the  whites  had 
obtained  control  of  all  the  Southern  State  governments 
excepting  those  of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Louisiana. 
Even  in  these  three  States,  they  claimed  to  have  carried 
the  elections,  but  the  Federal  troops  still  prevented  them 
from  turning  out  the  reconstructed  governments. 

792.  The  Ku-Klux-Klan  was  a  secret  society  of  whites, 
extending  all  through  the  Southern  States.      It  operated 
originally  as  a  sort  of  police  to  keep  the  freedmen  in  sub 
jection.      It  then    attacked    the  white    Republicans,   the 
"carpet-baggers"   or   "scalawags."      Finally,   it  seems 
to  have  gone  into  the  work  of  committing  murders  and 
outrages  for  pay  or  spite,  so  that  the  better  class  of  whites 
were  compelled   to  aid  in  putting  it  clown.      Before  this 
took  place,  Congress  passed  a  number  of  severe  laws,  in 
tended  to  put  an  end  to  the  society  and  its  practices  of 
riding  by  night  in   masks  and  disguises  to  terrify,  whip, 
or  murder  freedmen  and  white  Republicans. 

793.  Reconstruction,  so  far  as  it  aimed  to  make  freed 
men  voters,  was  thus  a  failure  in  all  but  three  States  before 
1876;   and   even  in   these   three  States,    South  Carolina, 
Florida,    and    Louisiana,    it    became    a    failure    in    1877 
(§  802).       Educationally,    however,    its    effect    upon    the 
negro  has  been  good.      As  a  slave,  the  negro  had  been 
only  a  thing,    a   piece   of  property,    without    any  rights. 
Reconstruction    has   given    him    every   right   but   that   of 


RECONS  TRUC  TION  [^75 

voting;  and  even  this  right,  though  still  often  denied  him, 
is  slowly  being  admitted,  as  the  negro  shows  himself 
worthy  of  it. 

(4)  Political  Affairs. 

794.  Political  Scandals  were  unhappily  numerous  during 
Grant's     administrations.       A    Whiskey    Ring    was    dis 
covered  in  the  West  in    1875,  composed  of  distillers  and 
revenue  officers,  and  formed  for  the  purpose  of  swindling 
the  government  out  of  the  taxes  on  the  manufacture  of 
whiskey.      Many  of  the   Indian   troubles   came   from   the 
frauds  of  government  agents  \vho  cheated  the  Indians  out 
of  their  allowances.      It  was  charged  that  the  scheme  for 
annexing  San  Domingo  (§  778)  was  contrived  by  govern 
ment  agents  who  owned  land  in  San  Domingo,  and  wished 
to  increase  its  value  by  annexation.      One  of  the   Presi 
dent's    Cabinet    was    impeached    for   taking    bribes,    but 
escaped  by  resigning ;   and  several   members  of  Congress 
were  charged  with    accepting   shares  of  Credit   Mobilier 
ctock,1  given  them   as  inducements    to   buy  their  votes. 
Very  many  of  these  scandals  \vere  the  result  of  the  system 
of  appointing  men  to  office  for  political  services,  which 
had  been  begun  under  Jackson  (§  467). 

795.  Liberal   Republicans — A    few    of   these    political 
scandals   had    come   to   public  view  during    Grant's   first 
administration.      As  those   \vho   were    engaged    in  them 
were  mainly  Republicans,   the   Democrats  used  them  as 
arguments  that  the  whole  Republican   party  \vas  equally 
bad,   and   some  of  the   Republicans   began  to  feel   very 
much  inclined  to  leave  their  party.      Moreover,  many  of 

1  The  Credit  Mobilier  was  organized  to  take  contracts  for  work  on  the 
Pacific  Railroad.  It  wished  to  have  certain  bills  passed  by  Congress ;  and 
it  secured  votes  in  Congress  bv  giving  stock  to  members. 


1876]  ELECTION  OF  2876  459 

the  Republicans  were  not  satisfied  that  Federal  troops 
should  be  used  so  constantly  to  support  the  reconstructed 
governments:  they  thought  that  if  these  governments 
were  not  able  to  sustain  themselves,  they  were  not  fit  to 
exist.  These  two  reasons  caused  the  formation  of  the 
"  Liberal  Republican  "  party  in  1871-2. 

796.  The   Presidential  Election  of  1872  was  influenced 
largely  by  the  state  cf  affairs  in  the  South.      The  Liberal 
Republicans  nominated   Horace   Greeley,   of  New  York, 
and    B.    Gratz    Brown,   of  Missouri,   and   the    Democrats 
accepted  these  nominations  as  their  own.      The  Repub 
licans  nominated  President  Grant  and   Henry  Wilson,  of 
Massachusetts,    and     approved    the     President's     use     of 
Federal   troops    at   the   South.       The    Republicans   were 
successful,  and  Grant  and  Wilson  were  elected  President 
and  Vice-President.1 

797.  Grant's  Second  Term  was  marked  by  a  great  in 
crease  in  the  scandals  which  became  public.      Few  per 
sons  believed  that  the  President  was  implicated  in  them, 
but  they  were  used  as  political  arguments  against  the  party 
which  had  elected  him.      In  1876,  the  Democrats  nomi 
nated  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A. 
Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  declaring  their  purpose  to  "  reform 
the  government. ' '      The  Republicans   nominated  Ruther 
ford   B.    Hayes,   of  Ohio,    and   William   A.    Wheeler,    of 
New  York,  declaring  that  the  government  would  be  safe 
if  left  under  their  control.      The  Independent,  Greenback, 
or   National  party  also    nominated  candidates,    but   they 
obtained  no  electoral  votes.     The  main  object  of  the  party 
was  to  have  all  paper  money  issued  by  the  government, 
and  none  by  banks.      At  this  election  there  seemed  to  be 

1  Grant  and  Wilson  received  286  of  the  366  electoral  votes.  Greeley  died 
soon  after  the  election.  His  mind  had  been  overthrown  by  the  excitement 
of  the  struggle. 


460  RECONSTRUCTION  [1876 

no  great  disputed  principles  between  the  two  parties :  one 
party  wished  to  get  in,  and  the  other  to  stay  in. 

798.  The  Presidential  Election  of  1876  was  thrown  into 
complete  confusion  by  the  state  of  affairs  at  the   South. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  when   the   people  at  large 
vote,  they  do  not  vote  directly  for  President  and   Vice- 
President:   they  vote  for  electors,  and  these  electors  after 
ward  vote  for  the   President  and  Vice-President   (§  295). 
When  the  election  by  the  people  was  over,  it  was  found 
that,   outside  of  Florida  and   Louisiana,    each  party  had 
obtained  nearly  the  same    number  of  electors,    and  that 
both    parties    claimed  to   have  carried  the   two   deciding 
States,  Florida  and  Louisiana.1     The  reconstructed  gov 
ernments,    on   account   of  violence   in   their   States,   had 
usually  appointed  "returning  boards,"  commonly  of  five 
men,  whose  duty  was  to  examine  the  vote  of  the  State,  and 
throw  out  the  votes  of  any  counties  or  parts  of  counties 
in  which  voters  had  been  kept  away  from  the   polls  by 
intimidation   or  violence.      In   Florida  and  Louisiana,  the 
Democrats    had  a  majority   of   the   votes  cast;     but   the 
Republicans  had  a  majority  after  the  returning  boards  had 
thrown  out  the  votes  of  those  counties  which  they  decided 
against.      The  Democrats  protested  that  this  was  illegal, 
as  it  made  the  returning  boards  masters  of  the  election ; 
the  Republicans  defended  it,  on  the  ground  that  any  other 
arrangement  would   make  force  and  fraud  masters  of  the 
election. 

799.  Congress    had    for    about  fifty   years  claimed   and 
exercised  the  power  to   decide   disputes    about  electoral 
votes   (§831).      But  now  the   Democrats  had  a  majority 
in  the  House  of  Representatives ;   the   Republicans  had  a 
majority  in  the  Senate ;   and  it  was  certain  that  the  two 

1  There  were  other  points  in  dispute,  but  these  two  States  formed  the  most 
important  element  in  the  controversy. 


1877]  THE  ELECTORAL    COMMISSION  461 

bodies  would  not  agree  in  any  decision  about  Florida  and 
Louisiana.  When  Congress  met  in  December,  1876,  it 
was  plain  to  all  men  that  Congress  might  argue  the 
matter  without  any  result  until  March,  that  then  two 
Presidents  would  claim  the  office,  and  that  civil  war 
between  their  supporters  might  follow. 

800.  The  Electoral  Commission — Congress  discussed  the 
situation  until  it  was  found  that  no  agreement  could  be 
reached  by  the  two  Houses,  and  then  the  moderate  men 
of  both  parties  united  in  passing  a  special  law  to  create  an 
Electoral  Commission.      This  commission  was  to  be  com 
posed   of  fifteen    members,    five   of   them   judges    of  the 
Supreme   Court,  five  Senators,  and  five   Representatives. 
The  Commissioners  were  to  consider  the  disputed  points, 
and  to  decide  what  seemed  to  them  the  true  votes.     Their 
decision  was  to  hold  good,  unless  the  two  Houses  should 
agree  to  overrule  it,  and   every   one   knew  that  the  two 
Houses  could  not  agree  in  anything.      The  decision  was 
therefore  really  with  the  commission. 

801.  The  Decision — It  had  been  intended  that  seven  of 
the  commissioners  should  be  Republicans,  seven   Demo 
crats,  and  the  fifteenth  a  person  who  was  not  an  adherent 
of  either   party.      This  fifteenth  member  was   unable   to 
serve,   and    a    Republican    took  his  place.      It  was   then 
found    that   on  disputed    questions  the   seven    Democrats 
and  the  eight  Republicans  voted  unitedly,  so  that  all  the 
important  points  were  decided  in  favor  of  the  Republicans 
by  votes  of  eight  to  seven.      The  Houses  did  not  agree 
in    changing    any    of   the    commission's    decisions;    and 
R.    B.    Hayes   became  President,    and   W.    A.    Wheeler 
Vice-President.1 

802.  The  Result  was  not  pleasant  to  many  of  the  Demo- 

1  There  were   185  electoral  votes  thus  declared  for  Hayes  and  Wheeler, 
and  184  for  Tilden  and  Hendricks. 


462  RECONSTRUCTION  [1865-69 

crats,  but  the  country  was  glad  to  find  any  means  of 
escape  from  a  pressing  danger.  One  result  was  that  the 
remaining  reconstructed  governments  in  the  South  were 
left  to  their  fate.  Unable  to  stand  alone,  and  supported 
only  by  Federal  troops,  it  was  seen  that  their  control  of 
important  electoral  votes  had  thrown  the  whole  country 
into  a  position  of  extreme  peril.  Even  before  the  new 
administration  came  into  office,  President  Grant  had 
withdrawn  the  Federal  troops  from  the  support  of  tfie 
reconstructed  governments,  and  his  action  met  general 
approval.  Within  two  months,  the  last  of  the  recon 
structed  governments  disappeared,  and  a  ''solid  South  " 
took  their  place  (^  753).  All  the  Southern  States  were 
controlled  by  the  white  voters,  and  all  were  Democratic. 
803.  The  Leading  Events  of  the  administrations  of  John 
son  and  Grant  were  as  follows : 

1865-69:  Johnson's  Term  of  Office. 

1865:  Disbanding  of  the  armies §  752 

Southern  State  governments  reorgan 
ized 756 

Thirteenth  Amendment  ratified 757 

1866:  Tennessee 'readmitted 760 

Atlantic  telegraph  laid 772 

Fenian  invasion  of  Canada 771 

1867:   Reconstruction  Acts  passed  by  Con 
gress 761 

Tenure  of  Office  Act  passed  by  Con 
gress 766 

Nebraska  admitted 774 

Maximilian  shot 770 

Alaska  purchased 773 

1868:   Removal  of  Stanton 766 

Impeachment  of  the  President 767 

Six  States  readmitted 762 

Fourteenth  Amendment  ratified 763 

1869-73  :   Grant's  First  Term 780 

1869:   Pacific  Railroad  completed 783 

San  Domingo  treaty 778 


1 870-77]  LEADING   EVENTS  463 

1870:  Reconstruction  completed §  788 

Fifteenth  Amendment  ratified 789 

1871  :  Ku-Klux  disorders 792 

Burning  of  Chicago 784 

Treaty  of  Washington 777 

1872:  Burning  of  Boston 784 

Modoc  war 7^5 

1 873-77  :  Grant's  Second  Term 781 

1873  :  Beginning  of  the  panic 781 

The  Virginius  case 779 

1876:  Centennial  celebration 787 

Admission  of  Colorado 786 

Sioux  war 785 

1877:   Electoral  Commission 800 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Maximilian  in  [Mexico. 

2.  The  impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 

3.  The  Ku-KJux-Klan. 

4.  "Carpet-bag"    government   in    a   Southern    State    (e.g., 
[Mississippi). 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

SOURCES. — Besides  the  Congressional  documents,  many  im 
portant  papers  will  be  found  in  Cooper's  American  Politics, 
McPherson's  History  of  Reconstruction,  and  the  American  Annual 
Cydopcedia.  The  Congressional  Globe  was  succeeded  in  1873  by 
the  Congressional  Record.  Magazines  and  newspapers,  though 
difficult  to  use,  are  of  indispensable  importance  for  the  years 
subsequent  to  the  Civil  War.  The  newspaper  almanacs,  es 
pecially  those  of  the  New  York  Tribune  and  New  York  World, 
are  very  useful  for  reference,  particularly  on  statistical  matters. 

NARRATIVE  ACCOUNTS. — The  work  of  Bryant  and  Gay  is  the 
only  extended  narrative  history  which  deals  at  any  length  with 
the  period  since  1865.  Andrews'*  History  of  the  Last  Quartet- 
Century  is  a  useful  medley  of  information,  with  interesting  pic 
tures.  The  constitutional  aspects  of  reconstruction  are  ably 
treated  in  Dunning 's  Essays  on  the  Civil  War  and  Reconstruc 
tion. 


CHAPTER    XXI 
ECONOMIC    DEVELOPMENT 

(I)  HAYES'S  ADMINISTRATION:  1877-81 

R.  B.  HAYES,  Ohio,  President.        WM.  A.  WHEELER,  N.  Y.,  Vice- President. 

(l)  Internal  Affairs, 

804.  Hayes's  Administration  proved  to  be  a  period   of 
calm  and  contentment,  such  as  the  country  had  not  known 

for  many  years.  The  war 
was  over,  and  its  passions 
were  dying-  away.  Recon 
struction  had  done  all  that 
it  could  do,  and  had  shown 
what  it  could  not  do.  The 
panic  of  1873  was  passing 
off  gradually,  as  the  growth 
of  the  country  brought  into 
use  and  profit  the  railroads 
which  had  been  useless  and 
unprofitable.  The  coun 
try's  history  during  these 
four  years  is  mainly  the 
story  of  the  daily  labor  of 
fifty  millions  of  people  who 
were  working  busily,  filling 
new  regions  like  Dakota, 

K.  i».  HAYES. 

and  selling  the  produce  of 
their  labor  in  enormous  quantities  to  other  nations.1 

1  The  census  of  1880  showed  a  population  of  50,155,783,  an  increase  of 

464 


INTERNAL   AFFAIRS  45 

805,  Electricity    was    brought    into    use,    during    this 
period,  in  many  new  and  wonderful  ways.     It  had  already 
been  put  to  use  in  the  telegraph  (§  510).      Now  the  tele 
phone  was  perfected,  and  the  electric   light  was  brought 
into  use  for  lighting  houses  and  streets.     The  first  promis 
ing  attempts  were  made  to  use  electricity  as  a  means  of 
transmitting    power,    in  driving  ordinary  machinery  and 
locomotive  engines. 

806.  Railroad  Strikes  were  numerous  during  the  summer 
of  1877.      The  railroads  attempted  to  lower  the  wages  of 
the  men ;   most  of  the  men  refused  to  work  for  the  new 
wages,  and  some  of  them  refused  to  allow  the  trains  to 
run.      In  some  cases  they  even  resisted  the  troops  which 
were   protecting   the   railroads;  and  there  were   riots   at 
Pittsburgh,    Chicago,  St.    Louis,  and  other  places.      The 
worst  riot  took  place  at  Pittsburgh,  where  the  rioters  held 
control   of  the  city  for  several   days.      Nearly   100  lives 
were     lost,     and     $3,000,000    worth     of    property    was 
destroyed,  before  order  was  restored.      After  nearly  two 
weeks  of  general  confusion,  the  disorders  were  suppressed, 
and  the  trains  began  running  regularly  again. 

807,  The  Nez  Perce'  Indians  were  ordered  to  remove,  in 

1877,  from  one  reservation    to   another.      They  refused, 
and    began  war.      They  were    pursued    for    1,500   miles, 
from  Idaho  through  Montana,  and  were  finally  compelled 
to  surrender.      But  their  skilful  retreat  was  much  admired 
by  the  officers  opposed  to  them :  they  marched  and  fought 
like  white  troops,  did  no  scalping,  and  killed   no  women 
or  children. 

808.  Yellow    Fever    attacked    the    Southern    States    in 

1878,  and  nearly  15,000  persons  died  of  it.      The  attack 
was  worst  at  Memphis  and  New  Orleans,  and  those  cities 

11,000,000  since  1870.     The  highest  rates  of  increase  were  in  the  Southern 
States. 


466  ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT  [1878 

were  at  one  time  abandoned  by  every  one  who  could  leave 
them.  Assistance  of  every  kind,  medicines,  money,  and 
nurses,  was  sent  to  the  afflicted  region  from  all  parts  of 
the  country. 

809.  The  Mississippi  River  had  for  a  long  time  been 
hard  to  control.      It  brings  with  it  vast  quantities  of  mud, 
which  gradually  drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  river.      Great 
shallows  are  thus  formed  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  so  as 
to  hinder  navigation;   and  the  level  of  the  river  is  raised, 
so  that  any  freshet  pours  over  the  banks,  and  floods  the 
neighboring  country.      The  first  difficulty  was  removed, 
during  this  period,  by  narrowing  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
The  current  was  thus  made  swift  enough  to  scour  out  the 
mud  and  carry  it   into  the   Gulf  of  Mexico;    and  ocean 
steamers  can  now  pass  up  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans. 
The  second  difficulty  has  not  yet  been   entirely  overcome 
(§821). 

(2)   Finances. 

810.  Silver  had  for  some  years  been  decreasing  in  value 
all  over  the  world,  partly  because   of  the  enormous  pro 
duction  of  the  silver-mines  of  Nevada  and   other  Pacific 
States  and  Territories.      The  value  of  gold  or  silver,  like 
that  of  anything  else,  depends  not  only  on  the  use  that 
people  have  for   it,   but  also   on   the   cost  of  getting  it. 
About  this  time  silver  began  to  be  used  less  as  a  money 
metal,  Germany  in  particular  largely  discarding  it.    At  the 
same  time  in   Nevada  the    miners    had    found  new   and 
cheaper  ways  of  getting  the  silver  out  of  the  ore ;   and  the 
mines  there  were  yearly  sending  out  larger  quantities  of 
silver.     For  both  reasons  its  price,  as  compared  with  gold, 
was  steadily  falling. 

811.  Demonetization  of  Silver. — The  laws  of  the  United 
States    allowed    both  gold  and  silver  to   be  coined   into 


1878]  FINANCES  467 

dollars.  As  the  amount  required  to  make  a  sLver  dollar 
was  then  worth  more  than  the  amount  required  to  make 
a  gold  dollar,  few  silver  dollars  were  coined,  for  the 
owner  of  silver  could  exchange  it  for  gold,  and  have  the 
gold  coined  into  more  dollars  than  the  amount  of  silver 
would  have  made  when  coined.  Hence,  in  1873,  Con 
gress  "demonetized"  silver,  i.e.,  no  longer  allowed 
silver  to  be  coined  into  dollars. 

812.  Remonetization  of   Silver. — After   1873  the  silver 
previously  required  to  make  a  silver  dollar  became  worth 
less  than  a  gold  dollar.      Had  silver  not  been  ' '  demonet 
ized,"    no    one   would    now  have   had   gold    coined    into 
dollars,  for  reasons  just  the  opposite  of  those  given  above 
(§811).      Thus  debts    contracted    in    gold    dollars   could 
have  been  paid  in  silver  dollars  of  less  value.      Owing  to 
the  demands  of  the  debtor  class,  Congress  in    1878  par 
tially  "  remonetized  "  silver,  i.e.,  spent  monthly  a  certain 
amount  for  silver,   and  coined  the  purchased  silver  into 
dollars.1 

813.  Resumption.  —  Ever   since    1862    (§670),    paper 
money,  issued  by  the  government  or  by  national  banks, 
had  been  the  only  money  in  general   use.      It  had  been 
the  only  money  used  by  the  government,  except  that  the 
government  demanded  gold  for  the  duties  on  imports,  and 
paid  gold  for  the  interest  on  the  public  debt.    It  had  been 
worth   less,  and  sometimes   much   less,  than  gold,  partly 
because  such   large  amounts  of  it  had   been  issued,   and 
partly  because  it  had  sometimes  seemed  doubtful  whether 
the  government  would  be  able  finally  to  pay  gold  for  it. 
It  had  been  decided  to  resume  specie  payments ;   and  the 

1  This  law  is  called  the  Bland- Allison  Act.  From  1789  until  1873  only 
8.000,000  silver  dollars  were  coined.  From  1878  until  1890  about  400, 
000,000  silver  dollars  were  coined.  Most  of  them  are  still  in  the  Treasury, 
for  the  people  do  not  find  them  as  convenient  as  paper  currency. 


468  ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT  [l879 

government  was  prepared,  January  I,  1879,  to  pay  in 
gold  or  silver  any  of  its  notes  that  were  brought  to  it  for 
payment.  But  the  notes  were  by  this  time  equal  in  value 
to  gold,  and  more  valuable  than  silver,  so  that  most  people 
preferred  to  keep  the  paper  money,  on  account  of  its 
convenience. 

814.  Refunding    was    also     accomplished    during    this 
period.     For  a  long  time,  a  high  rate  of  interest  had  been 
paid  on  the  public  debt,  so  that  the  United  States  paid 
between  one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  million 
dollars  a  year  for  interest.      It  was  now  so  certain  that 
the  debt  would  be  paid,  that  men  who  had  money  to  lend 
were  willing  to  lend  it  to  the  government  at  a  lower  rate 
of  interest.      As  fast  as  possible,  new  bonds  were  sold  at 
low   interest,   and   the  money  was   used  to   pay  the   old 
bonds.      The  annual  saving  in  interest  was  about  $30,- 
000,000.      The  total  amount  of  the  debt  was  now  about 
$2,000,000,000  (§  825). 

(3)  Foreign  Affairs, 

815.  Chinese  Immigrants  to  the  Pacific  States  had  be 
come  very  numerous.      They  had  been  accustomed  to  live 
far  more  meanly  than  white  laborers  had  been  used  to  do, 
and  could  therefore  work  for  less  wages.      White  laborers 
alleged  that  they  had  to  bid  for  work  at  lower  wages  than 
were   needed   to   support   themselves   and  their  families. 
The  consequence  was  that  there  were  riots,    attacks  on 
the  Chinese,  and  a  general  hatred  of  them  in  California. 
In  i  880,  a  treaty  was  made  with  China  which  allowed  the 
United    States    to    stop  Chinese   immigration  for   a   time 

(§  829)- 

(4)  Political  Affairs. 

816.  Congress  and  the  President  were  often  in  conflict 
during  Hayes's  administration.     The  Democrats  generally 


i88i]  GARFIELD  ^ND  ARTHUR  469 

controlled  Congress,  and  they  wished  to  repeal  certain 
laws  which  had  been  passed  by  former  Republican  Con 
gresses.  The  repealing  acts  were  vetoed  by  the  Presi 
dent,  and  the  majority  in  Congress  was  not  large  enough 
to  pass  them  over  the  veto  (§  469).  The  result  was  that 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  excitement,  and  very  little  was 
done. 

817.  In  the  Presidential  Election  of  1880  the  Democrats 
nominated  Winfield  S.  Hancock,  of  New  York,  and 
William  H.  English,  of  Indiana;  and  the  Republicans 
nominated  James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio,  and  Chester  A. 
Arthur,  of  New  "York.  The  result  was  the  election  of  the 
Republican  candidates:  they  received  214  electoral  votes 
to  i  55  for  their  opponents.  The  popular  vote  was  nearly 
equally  divided.  The  National,  or  Greenback,  party  also 
nominated  candidates,  but  they  received  no  electoral 
votes. 


(II)  GARFIELD'S  AND  ARTHUR'S  ADMINISTRATIONS:  1881-5 

JAMES  A.  GAKFIELD,  O.,  Pres.     CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR,  N.  Y.,  Vice -President  and  Pres. 

818.  Death  of  Garfield. — Garfield  was  inaugurated  March 
4,  1881.  Four  months  afterward  (July  2),  he  was  shot 
and  mortally  wounded  by  a  disappointed  man  whom  he 
had  refused  to  appoint  to  office.  After  an  illness  of  eighty 
days,  the  President  died  (Sept.  19)  at  Elberon  (near 
Long  Branch),  New  Jersey,  to  which  place  he  had  been 
removed  from  Washington.  Vice-President  Arthur  be 
came  President  at  Garfield 's  death.  Congress  has  since 
(§  831)  provided  that,  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability  of 
both  President  and  Vice-President,  the  members  of  the 
Cabinet  (§§  296,  831)  shall  succeed  to  the  Presidency, 
in  the  order  of  the  establishment  of  their  offices. 


470 


ECONOMIC  DE  VEL  OP  MEN  T 


\ 


819,  Civil  -  service  Reform.  —  Since  Jackson's  time 
(§  467),  every  President  had  been  expected  to  appoint 
men  to  office  because  they  had  worked  for  his  party, 
rather  than  because  they  were  good  public  servants. 
Garfield's  death,  which  was  a  tragical  result  of  this  system 
of  appointment,  brought  a  larger  number  of  people  to 
think  of  the  evils  involved  in  it,  and  to  call  for  a  better 


JAMES  A.  GARFIELD. 


CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR. 


system.  Congress  (1883)  accordingly  passed  the  Civil- 
service  Act,  allowing  the  President  to  select  examiners, 
and  to  make  appointments  on  their  examination  and 
recommendation  of  candidates.  This  method  of  appoint 
ment  has  been  very  successful  in  other  countries ;  and  in 
ours  it  has  been  applied  to  a  steadily  larger  part  of  the 
civil  service  by  the  Presidents  who  have  succeeded  Hayes. 
It  has  also  been  adopted  by  some  of  our  States  and  cities. 


i88ij  GENERAL  PROSPERITY  47 * 

820.  The  Yorktown  Celebration  — The  hundredth  anni 
versary  of  Cornwallis's  surrender  (§  261)  was  celebrated 
at  Yorktown  in    1881.      In  order  to   show  the  country's 
friendship  for  Great  Britain,  President  Arthur  ordered  that 
the  celebration  should  end  with  a   general  salute  to  the 
British  flag. 

821.  Natural  Disasters. — Just  after  the  Civil  War,  the 
government  had  established  a  Weather  Bureau,  to  give 
warning  by  telegraph  of  the   movements  of  storms.      It 
had   been  of  great  service;    but  it  could   do   nothing  to 
guard    against   such    misfortunes    as   the   overflow   of  the 
Mississippi   (§  809),   which  drove   100,000    persons  from 
their  homes  in  1882,  and  the  cyclones,  or  revolving  wind 
storms,  which  do  great  damage  every  year  in  the  South 
and  West. 

822.  The  Mormons. — Congress  passed  a   stringent  law 
in  1882,  intended  to  put  an  end  to  polygamy  among  the 
Mormons  in  Utah   (§  586).      The  practice   of  polygamy 
thereafter  decreased  (§  862). 

823.  The  Cincinnati  Riots. — The   country  was  startled 
in    1884  by  a  mob-outbreak  in   Cincinnati,  which  burned 
the  court-house  and  other  public  buildings,  and  kept  con 
trol    of  the  city  for   several    days  until  dispersed  by  the 
militia.      It  was  then  found  that  the  reason  for  the  mob's 
existence  was  that  justice  had  been  badly  executed  and 
criminals  had  escaped  punishment. 

824.  General  Prosperity. — The  country  had  now  fully 
recovered  from  the  panic    of  1873    (§  781).      Work  was 
plenty  for  everybody,  and   agriculture,  trade,  and  manu 
factures  were  flourishing.      This  was  especially  noticeable, 
and  for  the  first  time,  at  the  South.      That  section  had 
found    free    labor    far    more    profitable    than    slave    labor 
(§  59?)-      ^s  crops  were  very  large;  railroads  were  being 
built   in   every  direction;    rich   iron-mines   were    opened; 


472  ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT 

and  manufactures  were  appearing  as  they  had  never  done 
while  the  workmen  were  slaves.  Successful  expositions 
at  Atlanta  (1881)  and  New  Orleans  (1884-5)  showed  the 
great  resources  of  the  "New  South,"  and  its  wonderful 
advance  since  1865. 

825.  The  Tariff  of  1883.— The  payment  of  the  debt  had 
gone  on  so  rapidly  that  the  debt  was  now  only  about  half 
as  large  as  at  the  end  of  the  Civil  War.     It  was  no  longer 
possible  to  use  so   much  cf  the  government  revenues   in 
paying  the  debt,  for  bondholders  who  had  consented  to 
take  lower  rates  of  interest  (§  814)   had  done  so  on  the 
government's   promise   not  to   pay  off  their  bonds   for   a 
number    of  years   to    come.      It   was   then    proposed    to 
decrease   the    duties   on    imports,    in    order   to   make   the 
government  revenues  smaller.      For  that  purpose,  a  new 
tariff  was  adopted  by  Congress,  in  1883,  on  the  report  of 
a  Tariff  Commission,  composed  of  men  familiar  with  the 
subject.      As  it  turned  out,  this  new  tariff  made  very  little 
reduction  in  the  duties;   and  the  Democrats  in  Congress 
made   another   attempt   to    reduce   them    the    next   year. 
This  brought  up  the  old  question  of  Free  Trade  or  Protec 
tion.      Duties   had    been    made   high   in    1861,    partly   to 
obtain    needed    revenue,    partly   to    encourage    American 
manufactures,  which  would  pay  new  taxes ;  and  they  had 
not  been  decreased  since.      To  decrease  them  now  would 
be  to  have  less  protection,  and  the  Republicans  and  pro 
tectionist  Democrats  defeated   the  proposal  to  lower  the 
duties.      The  question  of  reducing  the  "  surplus  revenue  " 
then  passed  into  the  Presidential  election. 

826,  Presidential  Election  of  1884. — The  Republicans, 
declaring  in  favor  of  protection,  nominated  for  President 
James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  and  for  Vice-President  John 
A.    Logan,    of   Illinois.      The    Democrats,    declaring    in 
favor  of  a  reduction  of  the  government's  surplus  revenue, 


1884]  LEADING   El/ENTS  473 

but  saying  as  little  as  possible  about  the  general  question 
of  free  trade  or  protection,  nominated  Grover  Cleveland, 
of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Henrlricks,  of  Indiana. 
The  election  was  decided  by  the  36  electoral  votes  (§  295) 
of  New  York,  which  were  cast  for  Cleveland  and  Hen- 
dricks,  and  they  were  elected.1 

827.   The   Leading   Events    of    the    administrations     of 
Hayes,  Garfield,  and  Arthur  were  as  follows: 

1877-81 :   Hayes's  Term  of  Office. 

1877  :  Nez  Perce  war §  807 

Railroad  strikes 806 

1878:   Yellow-fever  epidemic 808 

Remonetization  of  silver 812 

1879:   Resumption  of  specie  payments.  ...  813 

1880:   Treaty  with  China 815 

1881-5:   Garfidd's  and  Arthur's  Terms  of  Office. 

1 88 1  :   Death  of  President  Garfield 818 

Vice-President  Arthur  succeeds  him.  818 

Atlanta  Exposition 824 

Yorktown  celebration 820 

1882  :   Mississippi  floods 821 

Anti-polygamy  Act 822 

Tariff  Commission .      825 

1883  :  New  Tariff  Act  passed 825 

Civil-service  Act  passed 819 

1884  :  Cincinnati  riot 823 

New  Orleans  Exposition 824 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Restriction  of  Chinese  immigration. 

2.  Practical  benefits  of  civil-service  reform. 

3.  River  and  harbor  improvement  by  the  national   govern 
ment. 

lrThe  electoral  votes  were  219  for  Cleveland  and  Hendricks  and  182  for 
Elaine  and  Logan.  The  Prohibition  Party,  aiming  to  prohibit  the  sale  of 
intoxicating  liquors,  nominated  John  P.  St.  John,  of  Kansas,  and  William 
Daniel,  of  Maryland,  and  the  former  Greenback  party  (§  797)  nominated 
Benj.  F.  Butler,  of  Massachusetts,  and  A.  M.  West,  of  Mississippi;  but  none 
of  these  received  any  electoral  votes. 


474  ECONOMIC   DEVELOPMENT  [1884 

4.  The  pension  system. 

5.  The  education  of  the  negro. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

The  authorities  remain  as  in  Chapter  XX.  The  works  of 
Garfield  have  been  edited  by  Hinsdale:  there  is  a  biography  bv 
W.  O.  Stoddard. 


CHAPTER    XXII 
CLEVELAND  AND    HARRISON 

(I)  CLEVELAND'S  FIRST  ADMINISTRATION:   1885-9 

GKOVER  CLEVELAND,  N.  Y.,  President.         T.  A.  HENDKICKS,  Ind.,  Vice -President. 

828,  The  New  President. —The  country  had  not  hitherto 
seen  so  sudden  a  rise  to  prominence  as  the  election  of 
Grover  Cleveland  as  mayor 
of  Buffalo  (1881),  governor 
of  New  York  (1882),  and 
President  of  the  United 
States  (1884).  Much  of  this 
rapid  elevation  had  been 
due  to  his  fearlessness  and 
admitted  integrity;  and  the 
circumstances  of  his  admin 
istration  were  such  as  to 

test  both  these  qualities. 
829.    Labor     Troubles.  - 

The  wealth  of  the  country 

was  increasing  enormously, 

and  the  number  of  rich  men 

was  increasing  with  it.      If 

all  their  wealth  should    be 

divided    among    their     fellow  GROVER  CLEVELAND. 

citizens,  it  would   give  very 

little  to  each ;  but  the  sight  of  their  apparently  easy  and 

pleasant  lives  was  enough  to  persuade  many  workingmen 

475 


476  CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON  [1885 

that  they  themselves  were  working  harder  than  was 
necessary.  Great  numbers  of  them  formed  associations 
which  refused  to  work  except  for  higher  wages  and  shorter 
hours,  as  they  had  a  perfect  right  to  do.  But  some  of 
them  tried  to  keep  other  men  from  taking  their  places, 
threatening,  injuring,  and  in  some  cases  killing  them ;  and 
there  was  bad  feeling  when  police  protection  was  given  to 
the  injured  parties.  Some  employers  made  "  blacklists  " 
of  men  whom  they  did  not  like ;  and  these  men  could 
find  employment  nowhere.  The  early  years  of  President 
Cleveland's  term  were  full  of  these  "  labor  troubles,"  and 
of  efforts  to  make  laws  to  settle  them.  Some  rich  em 
ployers  brought  large  numbers  of  workmen  from  Europe 
at  very  low  wages;  and  Congress  passed  a  Contract 
Labor  Act,  hoping  to  stop  this  practice,  and  a  still 
stronger  act  against  Chinese  immigration  (§  815).  Some 
violent  men,  called  Anarchists,  mostly  from  Europe,  who 
wished  to  destroy  all  government,  made  loud  threats  of 
disorder,  and  rose  in  riot  in  Chicago.  When  they  had 
been  put  down,  there  were  many  proposals  to  check 
immigration  in  some  way,  but  they  came  to  nothing. 

830.  The  President's  Policy. — President  Cleveland  had 
a  decided  belief  that  there  was  a  disposition  to   pass  too 
many  acts  of   Congress,    and  to  pass  them  too  hastily; 
and  he  had  no  fear  of  putting  his  belief  in  practice.      He 
vetoed  a  number  of  bills,  particularly  for  special  grants 
of  pensions,  and  thus  made  the  opposition  to  him  more 
intense.      He  enforced  the  Civil-service  Act  (§  819),  but 
the  old  system  of  appointment  continued  as  to  many  of 
the  offices  to  which  that  act  did  not  apply ;  and  for  this 
he  was  warmly  attacked. 

831.  The   Presidential   Succession. — Several    important 
changes,  however,  were  made  in  regard  to  the  office  of 
President.      The  Presidential  Succession  Act  provided  for 


1889]  FOREIGN  AND  NAVAL   AFFAIRS  477 

successors  in  case  of  the  death  of  both  President  and 
Vice-President  (§  818).  The  Presidential  Election  Act 
provided  for  the  settlement  by  the  States  of  disputes  as  to 
choice  of  electors,  such  as  occurred  in  1876  (§  799). 
The  Tenure  of  Office  Act  (§  766)  was  repealed. 

832.  Interstate  Commerce   Act. — One  of  the  most  im 
portant  laws   passed  was  the    Interstate   Commerce  Act 
(1887),  intended  to  prevent  railroads  which  operated  in 
more  than  one  State  from  charging  unfair  rates  for  their 
services.      Such  practices  were  forbidden,  and  a  commis 
sion  of  five  persons  was  appointed  to  hear  and  try  com 
plaints  against  any  railroad   disobeying  the  law.      Each 
State,  however,  continued  to  control  the  railroads  operated 
only  within  its  own  territory. 

833.  Ballot  Reform. — During  1887  and  1888  promising 
efforts  began  to  be  made  in  the  different  States  to  change 
the  method  of  voting  to  that  which  had  been  remarkably 
successful  in  Australia,  Great  Britain,  and  other  countries 
in    stopping    bribery   and    interference   with    voters,    and 
securing  an  absolutely  secret  ballot. 

834.  Foreign  and  Naval  Affairs. — A  French  company 
had  been  digging  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
while   an   American   company   proposed   to   dig   another 
across  Nicaragua.      It  was  felt  by  many  Americans  that 
the  United  States  ought  to  have  control  of  the  successful 
canal,  as  an  important  route  for  commerce  between  our 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts ;   and  yet  other  nations  would 
not  take  this   kindly.      The  French  company,   however, 
proved  a  failure,  and  it  broke  down  in  the   midst  of  its 
work  (1889).     There  were  also  disputes  with  Great  Britain 
about  the  right  of  American  fishermen  to  buy  ice  and  bait  in 
Canadian  ports,  and  with  Germany  about  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific  called  Samoa  (§  894).      All  these  misunder 
standings  were   settled   peacefully,   but   they  led   to   the 


478  CLEV 'ELAND  AND  HARRISON  [1887 

appropriation   of  large  sums  for  the   construction   of  im 
proved  and  more  powerful  and  swift  ironclads  for  the  navy. 

835.*  New  States.  —Four  new  States  were  admitted  to 
the  Union  in  1889:  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Mon 
tana,  and  Washington.  The  addition  of  Wyoming  and 
Idaho  in  1890  made  the  number  of  States  forty-four. 
None  of  these  States  had  considerable  populations,  and 
political  and  party  influences  had  much  to  do  with  deter 
mining  their  admission. 

836.  The  Tariff  and  the  Surplus.— By  this  time  the  in 
ternal-revenue  taxes  (§691)  had  been  gradually  abolished, 
with  the  exception  of  the  taxes  on  tobacco  and  intoxicat 
ing  liquors.  The  "surplus"  was  growing  larger,  for 
the  national  revenue  was  increasing,  while  the  need  for 
money  was  decreasing.  The  tariff  of  1883  had  made 
but  a  slight  reduction  in  the  duties,  and  the  growing 
"  surplus  "  brought  the  question  up  again.  It  may  seem 
a  good  thing  for  a  government  to  have  so  large  an  amount 
of  money  to  its  credit  as  was  then  lying  unused  in  the 
Treasury,1  but  it  was  really  a  bad  thing,  for  many  reasons. 
This  surplus,  though  a  very  small  part  of  the  country's 
wealth,  was  a  very  large  part  of  its  money;  and  the 
country  needs  all  its  money  to  carry  on  its  business.  To 
lock  up  part  of  the  country's  money  in  idleness  is  to 
hinder  just  so  much  of  the  country's  business,  and  give 
every  one  just  so  much  less  work  and  wealth.  And, 
further,  so  much  idle  money  in  the  Treasury  is  a  constant 
temptation  to  Congress  to  spend  it  wastefully  and  extrava 
gantly,  and  keep  up  the  taxation.  The  two  parties  were 
therefore  compelled  to  consider  ways  of  reducing  taxation. 
The  Democrats  wished  to  reduce  the  tariff  duties:  the 
protected  manufacturers  declared  that  this  would  ruin 

1  In  December,  1887,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  estimated  the  surplus 
for  the  year  at  $113,000,000. 


1 388]  THE  MILLS  BILL  479 

them,  and  the  Republicans  upheld  the  view  of  the  manu 
facturers. 

837.  Cleveland's   Message. — When    Congress    met   in 
December,   1887,  the   Secretary  of  the  Treasury  reported 
to  the  President  that,  if  the   withdrawal  of  money  from 
business   into    the  Treasury  should    continue,   the    result 
would  be  a  panic  (§  485).      The  President  therefore  con 
fined  his   annual  message   to   an   appeal   to  Congress  to 
reduce  the  duties  on  imported  goods,  as  the  only  advisable 
method  of  decreasing  the  revenue  and  the  surplus.      This 
brought  up  again  the  old  issue  of  free  trade  (or  a  revenue 
tariff)  against  protection  (§  425). 

838.  The  Trusts. — The  interest  in  the  matter  was  in 
creased  by  a  new  feature  in  business  management  about 
this  time.      Corporations  are  bodies  of  men  united  under 
control  of  law  so  that  they  can  sue  and  be  sued  in  the 
courts.      Some  of  these  corporations  began  to  unite  into 
"trusts,"  for  which  there  was  no  law.      It  was  asserted 
that  they  kept  prices  high,  and  were  aided  in  so  doing  by 
the  tariff,  which  kept  out  foreign  goods. 

839.  The  Mills  Bill. — The  Democrats,  who  had  a  small 
majority  in  the   House   of  Representatives,  brought  in  a 
bill   to  reduce  the   duties  on   imports :   it  was   called   the 
Mills   bill,  from  the   name   of  its   author.      A  few  of  the 
Democratic  Congressmen  were  protectionists,  and  it  was 
only  after  nearly  six  months  of  argument  that  they  con 
sented  to  support  the   Mills  bill,  which  was  then  passed 
by   the    House,    but  was  lost   in    the   Senate,    where    the 
Republicans  had  a  majority. 

840.  The  Presidential  Election  (1888). — In  the  midst  of 
the  discussion,  nominations  for  the  Presidential  election 
of  1888  were  made  by  both  parties.      President  Cleveland 
was  renominated  by  the  Democrats,  with  Allan  G.  Thur- 
man,    of   Ohio,    for    Vice-President.      The    Republicans, 


480 


CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON 


[1889 


supporting  protection  more  warmly  than  ever,  nominated 
Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  and  Levi  P.  Morton,  of 
New  York.  The  36  electoral  votes  of  New  York  again 
decided  the  election  (§  826),  and  elected  Harrison  and 
Morton.  This  completed  the  first  century  of  the  republic 
under  the  Constitution  (§  294). 1 


(II)  HARRISONS  ADMINISTRATION:   1889-93 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON,  Ind.,  President. 


LEVI  P.  MOKTON,  N.  Y.,  Vice-Prcsident. 


841.  The  Struggle  over  the  Rules. — When  Congress  met 
in    December,    1889,    it  was   proposed  in   the    House   of 

Representatives,  where 
the  Republican  majority 
was  small,  to  change  the 
rules  governing  the 
House,  so  as  to  prevent 
dilatory  motions  and  ex 
pedite  business.  Pre 
viously  it  had  been  possi 
ble  for  members  to  defer 
action  on  a  measure  by  a 
policy  of  delay  known  as 
filibustering,  which  con 
sisted  essentially  either  in 
making  irrelevant  motions 
which  took  precedence  of 
the  pending  business,  or 
in  simply  refraining  from 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON. 


answering  to  their  names 


when  the  roll  was  called. 
Unless   a   majority    of   the    members    answered    to   their 

1  The  electoral  votes  were  233  for  Harrison  and  Morton  to  168  for  Cleve 
land  and  Thurman.  The  Prohibition  candidates,  Clinton  B.  Fisk,  of  New 
Jersey,  and  John  A.  Brooks,  of  Missouri,  received  no  electoral  votes. 


1890]  THE  McKINLEY    TARIFF  4Sl 

names,  the  progress  of  business  was  temporarily  suspended 
until  a  majority  of  the  whole  House  answered  to  the  roll- 
call.  Both  parties  in  the  past  had  resorted  to  this  plan 
of  delaying  action,  and  had  claimed  that  such  delay  was 
a  right  to  which  the  minority  was  entitled  in  order  to 
prevent  hasty  and  ill-considered  legislation  on  the  part  of 
the  majority.  The  proposed  change  in  the  rules  allowed 
the  Speaker  to  count  as  helping  to  make  a  quorum  mem 
bers  who  were  present  but  who  did  not  answer  to  the  roll, 
and  also  authorized  him  to  disregard  dilatory  motions. 
After  an  angry  debate,  the  new  rules  were  adopted. 

842.  The  McKinley  Tariff  Act. — The  Presidential   elec 
tion  had  turned  upon  the  principle  of   protection.      The 
Republicans    had    been    completely   victorious,    and    had 
elected  the  President  and  a  majority  in  both  branches  of 
Congress.      In  his   first    message  to  Congress,    President 
Harrison  recommended  the  maintenance  of  the  protective 
policy.      Accordingly,   in  April,    1890,  Mr.  McKinley  of 
Ohio  introduced  in  the   House  a  tariff  bill  which  sought 
at  the  same  time  to  maintain  the  protective  system  and  to 
reduce  the  revenues  of  the   Federal   Government,  which 
were  then  in   excess   of  its   expenditures.      The  bill  laid 
high  duties  on  foreign  goods  which  came  into  competition 
with. home  products,  and  put  on  the  free  list  many  goods 
which  were  produced  exclusively  abroad.      In  the  Senate 
the    bill    was  so  amended    as  to  embrace    the    principle 
of  reciprocity.      This    form    of  reciprocity    consisted     in 
authorizing    the    President    to   impose   duties   on   certain 
goods  imported  free  from  other  countries,  in  case  those 
countries  imposed  duties  ' '  reciprocally  unequal  and  un 
reasonable  "  upon   certain   of  our   exports   to   them.      In 
this  amended  form  the  bill  became  law. 

843.  Silver  Legislation. — There  were  many  in  Congress 
who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  law  of  1878  (§§  811,  812), 


482  CLEVELAND   AND  HARRISON  [1891 

which  authorized  a  monthly  purchase  of  silver  by  the 
government.  They  claimed  that  any  owner  of  silver 
bullion  ought  to  be  allowed  to  take  the  metal  to  the  mint 
and  have  it  coined  into  dollars,  each  dollar  to  contain 
37 1 J  grains  of  pure  silver  and  to  be  a  legal  tender  in 
payment  of  debts.  Such  a  law,  they  claimed,  would 
make  the  silver  dollar  exchange  in  the  bullion  market  for 
the  gold  dollar.  As  the  outcome  of  this  feeling  the 
Bland-Allison  law  (§  812)  was  repealed;  and  as  a  com 
promise,  and  in  the  line  of  further  concession  to  the 
advocates  of  the  more  extended  use  of  silver,  a  law  was 
passed  which  required  the  government  to  buy  each  month, 
at  the  market  price,  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver.  The  law 
further  provided  that  for  every  gold  dollar's  worth  of  silver 
so  purchased  an  equivalent  amount  in  treasury  notes  of 
the  United  States  should  be  issued  and  that  these  notes 
should  be  a  legal  tender  in  payment  of  debt.  The  effect 
of  the  law  was  to  increase  the  money  in  circulation  by 
about  $50,000,000  annually.  It  failed,  however,  to  raise 
the  price  of  silver,  or  even  to  maintain  the  price  at  its 
former  level.1 

844.  Increased  Expenditures  by  Congress. — There  was  at 
this  time  a  very  noticeable  increase  in  the  appropriations 
of  money  made  by  Congress.  Many  people  were  alarmed 
at  what  seemed  to  them  the  sudden  and  undue  extrava 
gance  on  the  part  of  their  representatives  at  Washington. 
President  Harrison  in  his  first  message  to  Congress  had 
advocated  a  more  liberal  expenditure  upon  pensions  to 
the  former  soldiers  of  the  Union.  In  accordance  with 
this  suggestion  the  Dependent  Pension  Bill  was  passed 
by  Congress.  This  increased  very  materially  the  number 

1  This  law  was  popularly  called  the  Sherman  law,  because  Senator 
Sherman,  although  an  opponent  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  was  the  chair 
man  of  the  committee  which  reported  the  bill  in  its  final  form  to  the  Senate. 


1893]  THE   COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION  4^3 

of  those  entitled  to  pensions,  and  made  it  much  easier  to 
secure  pensions  than  it  had  been  hitherto.  The  effect 
of  this  law  has  been  rapidly  to  increase  the  expenditure 
upon  pensions  until  now  the  annual  pension  bill  is  by  far 
the  largest  single  charge  upon  the  national  treasury. 
Besides  this,  heavy  appropriations  were  made  to  increase 
the  navy  and  to  refund  a  tax  which  had  been  levied  on 
the  loyal  States  during  the  Civil  War.  The  Fifty-first 
Congress  spent  more  than  its  predecessor  by  $170,000,- 
ooo,  and  the  heavier  rate  of  expenditure  has  been  since 
maintained. 

845.  The  World's  Fair  at  Chicago. — In  the  early  part  of 
1890  Chicago  was  designated  by  Congress  as  the  site  of 
the  Columbian  Exposition,  which  was  to  be  held  in  cele 
bration  of  the  four-hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus  (§  6);  moreover,  a  commission 
was  appointed  to  supervise  the  enterprise.  In  December, 
1890,  the  President  issued  a  proclamation  inviting  all 
nations  to  take  part  in  the  exposition.  The  great  fair  was 
opened  May  I,  1893,  and  closed  October  30,  1893. 

846.*  Oklahoma.  —  In  1890,  the  same  year  in  which 
Idaho  and  Wyoming  were  admitted  as  States,  a  part  of 
the  Indian  Territory  was  organized  as  the  Territory  of 
Oklahoma.  A  proclamation  of  the  President  later  opened 
to  settlement  a  large  area  formerly  held  by  Indian  tribes, 
and  on  Sept.  22,  1891,  some  sixty  thousand  immigrants 
swarmed  in  and  took  possession  of  the  fertile  farming 
land. 

847.  The  Eleventh  Census. — The  final  count  as  given  by 
the  Eleventh  Census  made  the  population  of  the  United 
States  on  June  I,  1890  (exclusive  of  Alaska,  the  whites 
in  the  Indian  Territory,  and  Indians  on  reservations), 
62,622,250.  The  actual  total  was  not  far  from  63,000,- 
ooo.  Several  facts  of  importance  were  made  known  by 


CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON  [1891 

the  census.  First,  while  the  population  was  increasing, 
it  was  not  increasing  as  rapidly  as  formerly.  Between 
1870  and  1880  the  increase  was  thirty  per  cent;  from 
1880  to  1890  it  was  less  than  twenty-five  per  cent. 
Second,  it  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  rate  of  increase 
among  the  colored  population  in  the  South  was  shown  to 
be  markedly  less  than  among  the  white  population  in  the 
same  States.  While  the  negroes  increased  in  the  last 
decade  less  than  fourteen  per  cent,  the  whites  in  the  same 
States  increased  twenty-five  per  cent.  Third,  the 
geographical  centre  of  population  was  in  southern  Indiana, 
though  it  is  moving  slowly  but  surely  toward  the 
Mississippi  River. 

848.  Foreign  Affairs. — The  administration  of  President 
Harrison  was  marked  by  a  number  of  complications  with 
foreign  powers,  some  of  which  seemed  at  times  to  render 
war  not  impossible.     A  long-standing  wrong  to  foreigners 
was  redressed   when   Congress   passed  the    International 
Copyright   Act,    which    secured    their    property   in    their 
literary  productions,  provided  certain  conditions  were  first 
complied  with.      The  continued  agitation  of  the  question 
of  silver  led  to  the  calling  of  an   International   Monetary 
Conference   at   Brussels,   in    December,    iSg2l  to   secure 
some  international  co-operation  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
silver  as  a  money  metal ;  but  the  effort  proved  unavailing. 
With    England  we   had  a    dispute   as    to    our   respective 
rights  in  the  waters  of  Bering  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Alaska, 
where  our  vessels  and  those  of  Canada  were  engaged  in 
taking    seals.      In   June,    1891,    both    nations   agreed   to 
declare  a  close  season,   to  have  English  and  American 
ships  jointly  patrol   these  waters,  and  to  submit  the  dis 
puted  points  to  an  international  commission  for  arbitration. 

849.  New  Orleans  Riot. — On  March  14,  1891,  there  was 
a  riot  in   New  Orleans  in  which  eleven  persons  of  Italian 


1892]  FOREIGN  RELATIONS  4^5 

birth  were  taken  from  jail  and  handed.  It  was  alleged 
that  they  belonged  to  a  secret,  oath-bound  association 
which  had  perpetrated  certain  crimes,  and  which  had 
attempted  to  shield  certain  of  their  number  from  the  pun 
ishment  which  the  law  denounced  against  the  crimes  so 
committed.  The  Federal  Government  expressed  to  Italy 
its  deep  regret  at  the  occurrence,  but  disclaimed  all 
responsibility  for  the  affair.  It  was  proved  that  most  of 
the  unfortunates  were  naturalized  American  citizens.  On 
behalf  of  the  others  Italy  demanded  reparation  in  money, 
and  a  pledge  that  those  engaged  in  the  mob's  undertak 
ing  should  be  tried  for  their  crime.  This  promise  the 
Federal  Government  was  unable  to  give,  whereupon  the 
Italian  minister  left  Washington.  The  matter  was  finally 
settled  by  the  payment  to  Italy  of  $25,000  as  an  in 
demnity  to  the  families  of  the  dead  Italian  citizens,  and 
as  a  token  of  our  good  will  to  the  Italian  people. 

850.  Chili.— October    16,   1891,  a  number  of  American 
sailors    from    the    United    States    ship    Baltimore,    while* 
wearing  the  uniform  of  the  American  navy,  were  assaulted 
by  a  mob  in  Valparaiso,  Chili,  and  were  badly  maltreated, 
one  being  killed  outright.      The  demands  of  our  govern 
ment    for    an    apology   and    reparation    were    practically 
ignored    until   the    President   in   January,    1892,    made    a 
peremptory  demand  upon  Chili,   to  which    that  country 
promptly   acceded,   offering   a   money   indemnity,   which 
was  accepted. 

851.  Chinese  Exclusion. — The  efforts  which  had  been 
made    to  exclude    the  Chinese    from    the  United  States 
(§§  815,  829)  culminated  in  a  law  passed  in  the  spring  of 
1 892  which  prohibited  Chinese  immigration  for  a  further 
period  of  ten  years,  and  required  Chinese  residents  already 
in    this    country    to     provide     themselves,    under     heavy 
penalties,  with  certificates  of  residence. 


486  CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON  [1893 

852.  Hawaii. — The   Hawaiian   Islands  were  formerly  a 
constitutional  monarchy  with  a  queen  at  their  head.     The 
queen,  Liliuokalani,  had   threatened  to  abolish  the  con 
stitution  and  to  take  more  power   into  her  own  hands. 
This  threat  was  followed  in  January,  1893,  by  a  revolu 
tion  which  set  up  a  provisional  government  and  declared 
the  monarchy  at  an  end.      The  minister  of  the   United 
States   landed   a   number   of  marines   from  an   American 
war-ship  in  the  harbor  of  Honolulu.      His  avowred  object 
was  the  protection  of  the  property  of  American  residents. 
The  queen  declared  that  the  forces  of  the  United  States 
were  employed  really  to  aid  the  revolutionists.      She  pro 
tested  against  the  acts  of  the  provisional  government,  and 
declared  that  she  yielded  only  to  the  superior  force  of  the 
United   States.      On  February  I,   1893,  Minister  Stevens 
raised  the  flag  of  the  United  States  over  the  islands,  and 
established  a  protectorate  by  which  the  islands  were  tem 
porarily  in  the  status  of  a  colony.      A  treaty  of  annexation 
was  submitted  to  the  Senate,  but  was  speedily  withdrawn 
by  President  Harrison's  successor,  and  the  protectorate 
came  to  an  end  in  April,   1893. 

853.  Labor  Difficulties. — The   strife  between   employer 
and  employee  broke  out  with  violence  in  the  summer  of 
1892.      The  Carnegie  Company  at  Homestead,    Pa.,   in 
order  to  protect  their  property  against  violence  on  the 
part  of  striking  workmen,  employed  a  number  of  Pinker- 
ton    detectives   and   moved    them    up   the    Monongahela 
River  in  barges,  intending   to  land  them  at  the  works. 
A  battle  ensued  between  the  detectives  on  the  barges  and 
the  workmen  on  the  river-banks,  in  which  7  detectives 
and  1 1  of  their  opponents  were  killed.      The  militia  were 
ordered   to  the  scene,    and  for    a  while  the  district  was 
placed  under  martial  law.     This  conflict,  with  other  riots, 
especially  in  western   New  York,  drew  general  attention 


1892]  RE-ELECTION   OF  CLEVELAND  487 

to  the  gravity  of  the  question.  While  lawlessness^  and 
disorder  must  be  repressed  by  armed  force  if  necessary, 
it  was  becoming  increasingly  clear  that  some  different 
and  more  peaceful  method  of  settling  these  disputes  must 
eventually  be  found. 

854,  Presidential  Election  of  1892. — The  election  of 
1892  again  centred  about  the  question  of  protection. 
The  political  problems  which  were  the  legacy  of  the  Civil 
War  had  almost  entirely  given  place  to  problems  of  an 
economic  nature.  In  the  earlier  part  of  this  administra 
tion,  the  Republicans  attempted  to  pass  an  election  law 
providing  for  federal  supervisors  at  the  polls.  It  was 
aimed  especially  at  some  of  the  Southern  States,  where, 
it  was  alleged,  voters  were  intimidated.  Certain  Repub 
lican  Senators  from  the  Western  States,  deeming  the 
co-operation  of  Southern  Senators  in  the  struggle  for 
silver  of  more  importance  than  this  election  law  (the 
so-called  Force  Bill),  were  apathetic  in  their  support  of 
the  measure,  and  the  bill  failed  to  become  law.  Business 
interests  had  become  more  important  than  former  political 
issues.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1892  the  Repub 
licans  forcibly  reaffirmed  the  doctrine  of  protection,  and 
renominated  President  Harrison  for  President,  and  White- 
law  Reid,  of  New  York,  for  Vice-President.  The. 
Democrats  as  emphatically  denounced  the  protective 
policy,  and  again  nominated  Grover  Cleveland  for  Presi 
dent,  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  of  Illinois,  for  Vice- 
President.  The  People's  party,  the  successor  of  the 
Greenback  or  National  party  (§  817),  declared  in  favor  of 
the  free  coinage  of  silver,  a  graduated  income  tax,  state 
control  of  railroads,  and  state  loans  to  the  farming  class. 
The  nominees  of  the  People's  party  were  General  James 
K  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  for  President,  and  James  G.  Field, 
of  Virginia,  for  Vice-President.  The  Prohibition  party 


488  CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON  [1893 

(§  840)  again  put  candidates  in  the  field — John  Bichvell, 
of  California,  for  President,  and  James  B.  Cranfill,  of 
Texas,  for  Vice-President.  The  election  resulted  in  a 
sweeping  victory  for  the  Democrats.  The  Democrats  at 
the  same  time  gained  control  of  both  branches  of  Con 
gress.1 


(Ill)  CLEVELAND'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION:   1893-7 

GROVER  CLEVELAND,  N.  Y.,  Pres'dent.        ADI.AI   E.  STEVENSON,  111.,  Vice-President 

855.  The  Industrial  Depression. — The  Democrats  had 
won  a  decided  victory  in  the  Presidential  election  of  1 892  ; 
and  as  they  had  a  majority  in  Congress,  they  were  pre 
pared  speedily  to  revise  the  tariff  and  lower  the  duties  on 
imports.  A  severe  business  crisis  beginning  in  May, 
1893,  compelled  them,  however,  first  of  all  to  attend  to 
financial  measures.  The  panic  among  business  men  came 
very  suddenly.  During  the  summer  of  1 893  banks  and 
many  business  houses  failed  daily,  money  was  hoarded  and 
became  abnormally  scarce,  factories  were  shut  down,  and 
thousands  of  workmen  were  thrown  out  of  employment. 
Even  the  brilliant  success  of  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago 
(§  845)  was  not  sufficient  to  remove  the  gloomy  appre 
hensions  prevalent  among  the  people  generally.  The 
President  called  Congress  to  meet  in  special  session  on 
August  7,  and  urged  upon  that  body  the  necessity  of 
speedily  passing  laws  to  remove  the  fear  and  distrust  felt 
in  business  circles.  He  pointed  out  in  particular  the 
necessity  for  the  immediate  repeal  of  portions  of  the 
Sherman  law  (§  843). 

1  Cleveland  and  Stevenson  obtained  277  of  the  444  electoral  votes.  Of  the 
popular  vote  no  ticket  received  a  clear  majority,  over  a  million  votes  being 
cast  for  the  candidates  of  the  People's  party,  which  controlled  22  votes  in 
the  electoral  college,  the  remaining  145  going  to  the  Republican  candidates. 


1893]  REPEAL    OF   THE  SHERMAN  LAW 

856.  The  Repeal  of  the  Sherman  Law. — There  were  con 
flicting  opinions  as  to  the  cause  of  the  troubles  in  business, 
but  there  was  a  tolerably  general    agreement  upon  the 
necessity  for  the  repeal  of  the  law  requiring  the  purchase 
of  silver  (§  843).      The  government  gave  its  notes  for  the 
silver  which  it  got  under  this  law.     The'se  notes  circulated 
as  money,  and  their  holders  could  exchange  them  for  coin 
at  the   United  States    Treasury.      The  Treasury  officials 
felt  obliged  to  give  gold  coin  in  exchange  for  these  notes 
when  asked  to  do  so.      Thus  the  monthly  purchases  of 
silver  resulted  in  putting  out  a  number  of  notes,  many  of 
which  were  ultimately  presented  for  payment  in  gold  coin. 
In  this  and  in  other  ways  the  stock  of  gold  coin  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Treasury  was  being  depleted,  and  there 
were  fears  that  if  the  process  continued  the  government 
could  not  continue  to  redeem  its   notes  in  gold.      More 
over,  the  silver  which  had  been  obtained  was  not  available 
for  redeeming  these   notes,  so  long  as  the   note-holders 
preferred  gold,  and  so  long  as  the  Treasury  continued  to 
redeem  the  notes  in  gold.      It    also   happened  that  the 
value  of  the  silver  in   the  government's  vaults  suddenly 
fell,  upon  the  announcement,  on  June  26,  that  thereafter 
the  owners  of  silver  in  British  India  could  not  have  that 
metal  coined  into  money.      Under  the  pressure  of  public 
opinion,  the  House  of  Representatives  speedily  repealed 
the  silver-purchase  clause  of  the  Sherman  law  on  August 
28.      The  debate  in  the  Senate  wras  long  and  wearisome, 
but  on  November   I   the  Senate  voted  for  repeal.      The 
intensity  of  the  business  crisis  had  by  this  time  consider 
ably  abated,  but  industry  showed  few  signs  of  reviving, 
and  an  era  of  hard  times  set  in. 

857.  Bond   Issues. --The  government's   promises,    or 
notes,  are  used  very  generally  as  a  substitute  for  coin  in 
buying"  and  selling.      A  dollar  bill  is  thus  in  reality  noth- 


49°  CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON  [l894 

ing  but  the  government's  pledge  to  give  to  the  holder  of 
the  bill  a  dollar  coin.  Only  such  coins  are  44  dollars  "  in 
fact.  In  order  to  make  these  promises  good,  the  govern 
ment  has  to  keep  on  hand  a  stock  of  coin.  The  stock  of 
gold  coin  (§  856)  was  getting  very  low  when  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  decided,  in  January,  1894,  to  replenish  it 
by  selling  the  bonds  of  the  government  for  gold.  When 
governments  need  more  money  than  they  can  get  im 
mediately  by  taxing  the  people,  they  frequently  borrow 
money  and  give  the  lender  a  bond.  Such  a  bond,  when 
issued  by  our  government,  is  the  government's  promise 
to  pay  a  certain  amount  of  money  every  year  to  the  lender 
or  bond-owner  as  interest  upon  the  loan,  until  finally  the 
principal  of  the  loan  also  is  repaid.  The  amounts  thus 
promised  the  bondholders  are  obtained  from  the  taxes  to 
be  raised  in  the  future.  Thus  the  issue  of  bonds  makes 
taxes  heavier  in  the  future,  and  is  a  wise  policy  only  when 
the  immediate  need  for  more  revenue  is  very  urgent. 
While  the  sale  of  bonds  was  due  in  the  first  place  to  the 
necessity  of  getting  an  ample  stock  of  coin  to  redeem  the 
government's  notes,  the  money  obtained  from  the  sale 
of  bonds  was  used  in  part  to  pay  some  of  the  ordinary 
expenses  of  running  the  government,  inasmuch  as  the 
revenue  from  taxes  had  fallen  off.  There  were  subse 
quent  sales  of  bonds  on  three  occasions  (November,  I  894, 
February,  1895,  January,  1896),  and  thus  the  nation's 
debt  was  increased  by  over  $262,000,000.  The  gold 
obtained  in  exchange  for  the  bonds  enabled  the  Treasury 
to  continue  to  redeem  its  notes  in  gold,  but  the  increase 
thus  caused  in  the  national  debt  made  the  bond  sales  very 
unpopular  in  many  sections,  while  most  of  those  who 
believed  in  the  policy  of  redeeming  government  notes  in 
gold  regarded  the  bond  sales  as  necessary  under  the  cir 
cumstances. 


1894]  THE   GREAT  RAILROAD  STRIKE  49  * 

858.  The   Great  Railroad   Strike. — The  strife   between 
employer  and  employee  (§§  829,  853)  in  the  early  part  of 
1894  gave  rise  to  several  memorable  contests,  which   in 
the  summer  culminated  in  the  railroad  strike  centring  in 
Chicago.      In  May  the  workmen  in  the  shops  at  Pullman, 
near  Chicago,  demanded   higher  wages,  which  were  re 
fused,   whereupon  they  stopped  work.      In    order  to  aid 
the  Pullman  workmen,  the  American  Railway  Union,  an 
organization  of  railroad  employees,    threatened  to   with 
draw  their  members  from  the  service   of  the  companies 
running  Pullman  cars    unless  the  employers  at  Pullman 
consented  to  arbitrate  with  their  workmen.      This  threat 
was    not    heeded;    and    the    American    Railway    Union, 
aided  by  other  labor  organizations,  began  a  contest  with 
the  railroad  companies  to  whose  trains  Pullman  cars  were 
attached.      The  contest  thus  resolved  itself  into  a  struggle 
between  the  General   Managers'  Association  at  Chicago 
on  the  one  side,  who  controlled  the  railroad  interests,  and 
the  various  labor  organizations  engaging  in  the  strike  on 
the   other  side.      By  the   end   of  June  the   railway  traffic 
which  centred   in  Chicago,  and   especially  traffic   on  the 
lines    west    of   Chicago,    was    paralyzed.       Trains    were 
forcibly    stopped,     Pullman    coaches    were    detached    by 
mobs,  and  much  railroad  property  was  destroyed.      This 
forcible  interference  with  trains  delayed  the  mails,  which 
are  under  control  of  the   Federal   Government.      As  the 
United  States  marshals  could  not  afford  the  needed  pro 
tection  to  the  mail  trains,  a  part  of  the  regular  army  was 
despatched    to    the    scene   of   disorder.      Only  after    the 
appearance  of  these  forces  was  rioting  checked  and  peace 
restored. 

859.  The   Wilson   Bill. — In   accordance   with   the   pro 
gramme   outlined   by  the   Democrats   in  the   Presidential 
election  (§  854),  there  was  introduced  into  Congress  in 


49 2  CLEVELAND  AND  HARRISON  [1894 

the  closing  days  of  1893  a  tariff  measure,  called  from  its 
author  the  Wilson  bill,  which  reduced  the  rates  of  duty 
upon  many  imports  and  largely  abolished  duties  on  raw 
material  brought  in  from  abroad.  There  was  afterward 
added  to  the  measure  a  proposal  to  tax  incomes,  and  in 
this  form  the  bill  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives,  and  was  sent  to  the  Senate.  The  Senate 
proceeded  to  modify  many  sections  of  the  House  measure, 
and  made  smaller  reductions  in  existing  duties  than  had 
been  contemplated  in  the  original  bill.  In  this  modified 
form  the  bill  passed  the  Senate  on  July  3,  1894.  The 
House  refused  to  accede  to  the  changes  proposed  by  the 
Senate,  and  for  a  time  it  looked  as  though  no  new  tariff 
measure  might  be  passed.  In  the  struggle  between  the 
two  bodies  the  President  expressed  his  sympathy  with  the 
House  as  against  the  Senate.  Finally,  on  August  13, 
the  House  reluctantly  acceded  to  the  bill  in  the  form  in 
which  it  had  passed  the  Senate,  and  ten  days  thereafter 
it  became  law  without  the  signature  of  the  President,  who 
chose  thus,  by  withholding  his  signature,  to  express  his 
disapproval  of  the  action  of  certain  Democratic  Senators. 
The  bill  as  passed  removed  all  duty  from  the  imports  of 
raw  wool,  but  still  imposed  duties  on  many  other  raw 
materials.  The  House,  after  accepting  the  changes  made 
in  the  measure  by  the  Senate,  immediately  passed  acts 
A'hich  put  many  of  these  raw  materials  on  the  list  free  of 
duty,  but  these  bills  failed  to  pass  the  Senate. 

860.  The  Income-tax  Decision. — The  struggle  over  the 
tariff  measure  had  already  stirred  up  much  ill  feeling 
among  the  Democrats.  The  various  financial  measures 
continually  debated  in  Congress,  as  well  as  the  policy  of 
the  Treasury  (§  857),  tended  also  rapidly  to  create  two 
distinct  factions  within  the  party,  when  in  the  spring  of 
1895  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  a  decision  which 


1895]  THE   VENEZUELA   DISPUTE  493 

abolished  the  income  tax  (§  859),  the  favorite  device  of 
one  wing  of  the  party,  and  the  last  financial  reliance  of 
the  other  wing.  The  income  tax  had  been  grafted  upon 
the  original  Wilson  bill  (§  859)  at  the  demand  of  many 
of  the  Southern  and  Western  Democrats  in  Congress,  who 
thought  that  such  a  tax  would  apportion  the  burden  of 
Federal  taxation  more  justly  than  heretofore.  In  a  law 
suit  which  had  been  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court 
(§  283),  that  tribunal  decided  that  the  income  tax  pro 
vision  of  the  Wilson  bill  was  not  constitutional.  The 
Constitution  gives  certain  powers  to  Congress,  and  in 
some  cases  prescribes  how  such  powers  are  to  be  exer 
cised.  In  case  the  Supreme  Court  decides  that  a  law 
passed  by  Congress  violates  a  provision  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  the  law  ceases  to  exist.  This  was  the  case  with  the 
income  tax.  The  Treasury  was  thus  cut  off  from 
obtaining  very  considerable  amounts  of  money  which  it 
had  counted  upon  receiving,  and  was  forced  to  sell  bonds 

(§  857)- 

861.  The  Venezuela  Dispute. — The  country  was  startled 
on  Dec.  17,  1895,  by  a  special  message  sent  by  the 
President  to  Congress  upon  Great  Britain's  refusal  to 
arbitrate  certain  disputed  points  with  Venezuela.  The 
territory  of  British  Guiana  in  South  America  is  contiguous 
to  Venezuela,  and  the  boundary  line  between  the  two 
countries  had  long  been  in  dispute.  British  subjects  occu 
pied  certain  lands  claimed  by  Venezuela,  and  Great 
Britain  refused  to  submit  to  arbitration  the  question  of  the 
rightful  ownership  of  the  territory  in  question.  The 
United  States  insisted  that  Great  Britain  should  submit 
these  territorial  claims  to  arbitration,  and  based  its  demand 
upon  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (§§  420,  695,  770).  As  this 
demand  by  the  United  States  had  been  refused,  the  Presi 
dent  suggested  the  creation  of  a  commission  to  determine 


494  CLEVELAND   AND  HARRISON  [1896 

the  true  divisional  line,  and  asserted  the  necessity  of  resist 
ing  by  every  means  in  our  power  the  future  occupation  or 
control  by  Great  Britain  of  any  territory  which  the  com 
mission  might  determine  belonged  of  right  to  Venezuela. 
The  implied  possibility  of  war  with  England  caused  deep 
excitement,  and  great  commotion  in  commercial  circles. 
Congress  authorized  the  President  to  name  the  commis 
sion,  which  when  duly  appointed  began  its  investigation. 
Meanwhile  diplomatic  negotiations  between  the  govern 
ments  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  continued, 
and  resulted  finally,  in  November,  1896,  in  the  draft  of  a 
treaty  between  Venezuela  and  Great  Britain  for  the  settle 
ment  of  the  question.  An  impartial  tribunal  was  to  be 
named,  and  was  to  decide  upon  the  true  boundary,  but  it 
was  agreed  that  fifty  years'  continuous  holding  of  disputed 
territory  by  settlers  should  constitute  a  valid  title  to  terri 
tory  so  occupied.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  the 
Venezuelan  Commission  of  the  United  States  determined 
not  to  render  a  decision  upon  the  location  of  the  true 
boundary  line,  and  ceased  their  investigation.  The 
tribunal  rendered  its  decision  in  1899,  and  sustained  the 
main  contentions  of  Great  Britain. 

862.  Utah  was  admitted  into    the   Union  in    1896.      It 
had  been  organized  as  a  Territory  in  1850  (§  555),  and 
became  the  final   seat  of  the  Mormons  (§  822).      In    1893 
a   bill   to   admit   Utah   as   a   State   passed  the  House   of 
Representatives.        The     committee     reporting    the     bill 
declared  that  polygamy  was  virtually  suppressed  and  that 
there  need  be  no  fear  of  its  revival.      The  bill  passed  the 
Senate  July  10,   1894,  and  the  State  became  a  member  of 
the  Union  in  January,   1896. 

863.  Cuba.— In    February,    1894,    there   began    in    the 
Island  of  Cuba  a  rebellion  against  Spain,  which  owned  the 
island  and  governed  it  harshly.      Much  sympathy  was  felt 


1897]  CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM  495 

in  the  United  States  for  the  insurgents,  and  filibustering 
expeditions  were  fitted  out  in  the  United  States  or  off  its 
coasts  to  aid  the  rebellion.  These  efforts  were  unlawful, 
and  were  suppressed  where  possible  by  the  Federal 
officials.  War  between  the  United  States  and  Spain 
seemed  not  unlikely.  Both  Houses  of  Congress,  early  in 
1896,  declared  in  favor  of  recognizing  the  struggle  to  be 
a  revolutionary  war  rather  than  a  mere  insurrection.  On 
July  30  the  President  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality, 
warning  all  persons  against  unlawfully  making  war  on  the 
Spanish  forces  in  Cuba.  In  December,  1896,  it  looked 
for  a  time  as  though  Congress  might  pass  resolutions  pur 
porting  to  recognize  the  independence  of  Cuba.  At  this 
juncture  the  Secretary  of  State,  Richard  Olney,  declared 
publicly  that  the  power  to  recognize  an  independent  state 
rested  exclusively  with  the  President,  and  announced, 
with  thinly  veiled  contempt,  that  the  resolution  pending 
in  the  Senate,  if  passed,  would  be  only  "an  expression 
of  opinion  by  the  eminent  gentlemen  who  might  vote  for 
it. ' '  The  resolution  never  came  to  a  vote,  and  the  danger 
of  war  with  Spain  for  a  time  diminished. 

864.  Extension  of  the  Merit  System. — There  are  two 
theories  held  about  appointment  to  ordinary  positions 
under  the  government.  One  theory  is  that  public  offices 
are  rewards  for  political  work,  and  should  be  given  to 
useful  party  men.  This  is  the  "spoils  system."  The 
other  theory  is  that  public  offices  are  positions  which 
should  be  filled  by  the  most  capable  men,  irrespective  of 
their  political  leanings,  and  that  where  there  are  numerous 
applicants  for  office,  fitness  should  be  determined  by  busi 
ness  tests.  This  is  the  "merit  system,"  which  was 
largely  extended  by  President  Cleveland  by  an  order  of 
May  6,  1896,  whereby  30,000  additional  positions  were 
put  under  the  merit  system. 


496  CLEVELAND   AND  HARRISON  [1896 

865.  The  Presidential  Campaign. — The  Presidential  elec 
tion  of  1896  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  political 
contests  in  our  history.  The  hard  times  had  given  rise 
to  great  discontent,  and  many  people  advocated  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  as  the  remedy  for  the  business  depres 
sion.  The  "silver  question"  thus  became  the  issue  of 
the  hour,  and  the  tariff  was  little  discussed.  Advocates 
of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  were  at  first  to  be  found  in 
both  of  the  great  parties.  In  the  Republican  nominating 
convention  at  St.  Louis  a  small  party  of  silver  men 
"bolted,"  that  is,  left  the  organization,  inasmuch  as  the 
convention  declared  against  the  free  coinage  of  silver 
unless  by  arrangement  with  other  nations.  William 
McKinley,  of  Ohio  (§  842),  was  nominated  for  President, 
and  Garret  A.  Hobart,  of  New  Jersey,  for  Vice-President. 
The  advocates  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  were  relatively 
more  numerous  in  the  Democratic  party  than  in  the 
Republican  ranks.  The  Democratic  convention  at  Chicago 
therefore  declared  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the 
ratio  of  16  to  I,  without  "waiting  for  the  aid  or  consent 
of  any  other  nation,"  and  nominated  William  J.  Bryan, 
of  Nebraska,  for  President,  and  Arthur  Sewall,  of  Maine, 
for  Vice-President.  The  People's  party  (§  854),  or  Popu 
lists,  approved  of  free  silver  coinage,  and  nominated  Mr. 
Bryan  for  President,  and  Thomas  E.  Watson,  of  Georgia, 
for  Vice-President.  Many  Democrats,  especially  in  the 
East  and  central  West,  who  were  opposed  to  the  Chicago 
platform,  held  an  independent  convention  at  Indianapolis 
in  September.  Here  they  declared  against  the  free 
coinage  of  silver,  indorsed  the  administration  of  President 
Cleveland  (whose  financial  policy  had  been  repudiated 
by  the  Chicago  convention),  and  named  General  John 
M.  Palmer,  of  Illinois,  and  General  Simon  B.  Buckner,  of 


1896]  THE  ARBITRATION   TREATY  497 

Kentucky,  for  President  and  Vice-President,  respectively. 
The  Prohibitionists  and  the  Socialist  Labor  party  also  put 
tickets  in  the  field. 

866.  The  Election  of  1896. — The  struggle  centred  around 
the  silver  issue,  and  after  certain  combination  tickets  had 
been  arranged  between  the  Populists  and  the  Democrats, 
it  became  plain  that  either  McKinley  or  Bryan  must  be 
elected.      At  the  end  of  an    exciting  campaign,   one  of 
whose    features   was   the   breaking   up    of  the    exclusive 
Democratic  sway  in  the  Southern  States  (§  802),  McKinley 
and   Hobart  were  elected.      The    Republican  candidates 
obtained  a  large  popular  majority,  and  271  out  of  the  447 
electoral  votes. 

867.  The  Arbitration  Treaty.' — Toward  the  close  of  his 
term   of  office    President  Cleveland  sent  to  the  Senate, 
with   his   approval,   a   general  treaty  of  arbitration  with 
Great  Britain.      In  1890  Congress  by  unanimous  vote  had 
requested  the  President  to  open  negotiations  for  this  pur 
pose   with    all    nations.      The   purpose    of  this   proposed 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  was  to  provide  courts  or  tribunals 
to  settle  differences  which  might  arise  between  the  two 
nations,  in  case  a  settlement  of  such  differences  could  not 
be  reached  by  ordinary  diplomatic  processes.      The  exist 
ence  of  such  an  arrangement,   it  was  felt,  would  be  an 
additional   guarantee   of   peace    between   the   two    great 
English-speaking  nations,    and  would  tend  to  substitute 
for  the  barbarous  expedient  of  war  and  carnage  a  peace 
ful,  reasonable,  and  Christian  method  of  deciding  inter 
national  quarrels.      The  treaty  was  rejected  by  the  Senate 
shortly  after  at   the  expiration   of  President  Cleveland's 
term  of  office. 

868.  The   Leading   Events    of    the    administrations    of 
Cleveland  and  Harrison  were  as  follows : 


498  CLEVELAND   AND   HARRISON  [1885-96 

1885-9:  Cleveland's  First  Term  of  Office, 

1885:  "  Labor  troubles  "  began §  829 

Contract  Labor  Act 829 

1886:  Presidential  Succession  Act 831 

1887:  Canadian  fisheries  dispute 834 

Interstate  Commerce  Act 832 

Presidential  Election  Act 831 

Tenure  of  Office  Act  repealed 831 

Anarchist  riot  at  Chicago 829 

1888:  Four  new  States  admitted 835 

Chinese  Immigration  Act 829 

1889:  Panama  Canal  Company  fails 834 

Samoan  dispute 834 

Election  of  Harrison .  840 

End    of    the    first    century    under   the 

Constitution 840 

1889-93:   Harrison's  Term  of  Office. 

1889  :  Struggle  over  the  rules 841 

1890:  Chicago  designated  as  the  site  of  the 

World's  Fair 845 

Dependent  Pension  Bill  passed 844 

Idaho  admitted 846 

Wyoming  admitted 846 

The  Silver  Law  passed 843 

The  McKinley  Tariff 842 

1891  :  Close  season  declared  in  Bering  Sea..  848 

Riot  in  New  Orleans 849 

Riot   in  Valparaiso,  Chili 850 

1892  :  Chinese  Exclusion  Act  passed 851 

Homestead  riots 853 

Presidential  election 854 

1893  :  Revolution  in  Hawaii 852 

1893-7:  Cleveland's  Second  Term  of  Office. 

1893:  Industrial  depression ,  .  .  855 

World's  Fair  at  Chicago 855 

Repeal  of  the  Sherman  Law 856 

1894  :  First  bond  issue 857 

Railroad  strike 858 

Wilson  Bill  passed 859 

1895  :  Income  Tax  decision 860 

Venezuelan  Message 86 1 

1896:  Utah  admitted 862 


1896-7]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  499 

1896  :  Cuban  question §  863 

The   merit   system    extended    in    the 

civil  service 864 

Presidential  election 865 

1897:  Arbitration  treaty  negotiated 867 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Early  plans  for  an  isthmian  canal. 

2.  The  secret  ballot  laws  of  a  particular  State  (e.g.,  Massa 
chusetts). 

3.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  Speaker. 

4.  The  Venezuelan  question  and  the  JMonroe  doctrine. 

5.  Early  suggestions  of  American  intervention  in  Cuba. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

The  main  authorities  continue  as  in  Chapter  XX.  On  the 
movement  for  civil-service  reform  see,  besides  the  annual 
reports  of  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  the  annual  reports 
of  the  National  Civil  Service  League,  George  William  Curtis's 
Orations  and  Addresses,  vol.  n.,  and  Gary's  Curtis.  The  impor 
tance  of  periodicals,  as  fields  for  political  discussion,  becomes 
noticeable  in  this  period. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 


EXPANSION 


1897-1900 


WM.  MCKINLEY,  O.,  President. 


GAKRET  A.  HOBART,  N.  J.,  Vice-President 


869,    President   McKinley. — The    President   owed    his 
election,  not  to  Republicans  alone,  but  also  to  Democrats 

and  Independents  who, 
while  unable  to  indorse 
Republican  policy  in  gen 
eral,  were  alarmed  lest 
financial  disaster  should  fol 
low  the  election  of  Mr. 
Bryan,  and  felt  that  a  sound 
and  stable  currency  was  the 
paramount  issue  of  the  cam 
paign.  Mr.  McKinley  had 
had  administrative  experi 
ence  as  governor  of  Ohio, 
and  was  well  known 
throughout  the  country  as 
the  foremost  champion  of 
protection,  and  the  official 
sponsor  for  the  tariff  act  of 
1890.  His  inaugural  ad 
dress,  while  containing  a 

promise  to  do  what  he  could  for  international  bimetallism, 
announced  his  purpose  to  use  every  effort  to  keep  gold 

*  Vice-President  Hobart  died  November  21,  1899. 

500 


WILLIAM  MCKINLEY. 


15    from  "Washington        1C 


1897]  THE  DING  LEY   TARIFF  5O1 

and  silver  at  a  parity.  He  insisted  that  adequate  pro 
vision,  on  the  protective  principle,  should  be  made  for  the 
revenue,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  deficit,  which  had 
increased  during  the  last  months  of  Mr.  Cleveland's 
administration.  An  extra  session  of  Congress  was  called 
to  deal  with  the  tariff.  In  the  construction  of  the  cabinet, 
John  Sherman,  of  Ohio,  was  made  Secretary  of  State, 
Lyman  J.  Gage,  of  Illinois,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
John  D.  Long,  of  Massachusetts,  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  Russell  A.  Alger,  of  Michigan,  Secretary  of  War. 

870,  The  Dingley  Tariff. — Congress  met  in  extra  session 
March  15,  1897.  As  the  opposition  of  the  silver  Repub 
licans  in  the  Senate  bade  fair  to  make  tariff  legislation  in 
that  body  difficult,  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the 
House,  of  which  Nelson  Dingley,  of  Maine,  was  chair 
man,  had  already  taken  the  matter  in  hand,  and  prepared 
a  revision  of  the  tariff  designed  to  secure  increased 
revenue.  The  bill  was  introduced  on  the  day  Congress 
met,  and  consideration  of  it  was  facilitated  by  an  agree 
ment  of  the  Republican  leaders,  under  which  Speaker 
Reed,  who  had  been  re-elected,  appointed  only  such 
committees  as  would  enable  the  House  to  organize,  and 
consider  the  tariff  and  appropriation  bills.  The  estimated 
increase  of  revenue,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Dingley,  was  from 
seventy  to  one  hundred  million  dollars.  The  rates  were, 
in  general,  a  compromise  between  those  of  1890  and 
those  of  1894;  but  the  increase  of  rates  in  some  schedules, 
the  transfer  of  a  number  of  articles  from  the  free  to  the 
dutiable  list,  and  the  substitution  of  specific  for  ad  valorem 
duties,  operated  to  make  the  actual  increase,  in  many 
cases,  very  considerable.  The  bill  was  passed  March 
31,  by  a  large  majority,  and  the  House  then  kept  in 
nominal  session,  without  transacting  other  business,  by 
adjournment  for  successive  periods  of  three  days,  while 


5  °  2  EXPANSION  [  r  8  9  7 

the  bill  was  under  consideration  in  the  Senate.  The 
organization  of  the  Senate  was  delayed  by  the  opposition 
of  the  Populists  and  silver  Republicans,  who  held  the 
balance  of  power;  and  it  was  July  24  before  the  bill,  with 
some  modifications,  passed  the  Senate  and  received  the 
approval  of  the  President. 

871.  The  Revenue. — The  knowledge  that  the  Dingley 
tariff  would  raise  the  duties  led  for  several  months  to  a 
great  increase  of  importation,  the  effect  of  which  was  to 
decrease  the   monthly   deficit.       This   movement    ceased 
with    the    passage    of  the   act,    and    expenditures   again 
showed  a  large   excess  over  receipts.      The  gold  reserve, 
however,    remained   at    about   $150,000,000;    while   im 
proved  business  conditions,  a  large  demand  for  breadstuffs 
on  account  of  crop  failures  abroad,  and  a  sharp  decline 
in  the  market  price  of  silver,  tended  to  raise  confidence 
in  the  financial  stability  of  the  country,  and  to  weaken 
the  influence  of  the  free-silver  advocates. 

872.  The  Monetary  Commission. — In  fulfilment    of   the 
promise  in  his  inaugural  address,  and  under  the  authority 
of  an   act   of  Congress   passed  just   before  the   close   of 
Mr.    Cleveland's   administration,    President    McKinley  in 
April  appointed  three  commissioners  to  further  the  cause 
of  international  bimetallism.      The  commissioners  visited 
Europe,    and  had   interviews   with   various   financial   and 
governmental  authorities ;   but  the  refusal  of  the  govern 
ment  of  India  to   open  its   mints  to  the  free  coinage  of 
silver  practically  extinguished    hope   of  favorable    inter 
national  action  in  the  direction  of  bimetallism. 

873.  Relations  with  Cuba. — The  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Cuba   (§  863),   instead  of  improving, 
had    continued    to    grow  more    acute.      During   the   last 
months  of  the  Cleveland  administration,  there  were  fre 
quent  calls   upon   the    government  for  the   protection  of 


1897]  AFFAIRS  IN   CUBA  503 

American  citizens  in  Cuba,  many  of  the  persons,  however, 
being  naturalized  Cubans  who  had  aided  the  insurgents. 
Numerous  filibustering  expeditions  were  also  set  on  foot; 
but  the  United  States  did  its  best  to  preserve  neutrality, 
and  one  of  the  most  notorious  filibustering  vessels,  the 
Three  Friends,  was  seized  and  forfeited.  In  May,  1897, 
President  McKinley  sent  a  special  commissioner  to  Cuba, 
and  his  report  was  followed  by  claims  upon  Spain  for 
indemnity  on  account  of  the  alleged  ill-treatment  of  cer 
tain  American  citizens.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Senate 
had  passed  a  resolution  declaring  that  a  state  of  war 
existed  between  Spain  and  the  Cubans,  and  giving  the 
latter  belligerent  rights;  but  President  McKinley  was 
strongly  averse  to  such  a  step,  and  the  resolution  was 
not  acted  upon  by  the  House.  An  appropriation  of 
$50,000  was  made,  however,  for  the  relief  of  distressed 
Americans  in  the  island.  The  appointment  of  Gen. 
Stewart  L.  Woodford,  of  New  York,  as  minister  to  Spain 
was  followed  by  rumors  that  an  ultimatum  was  to  be  pre 
sented  to  the  Spanish  government.  The  activity  of  the 
Spanish  forces  in  Cuba,  under  the  command  of  General 
Weyler,  meanwhile  increased,  but  without  substantial 
results  in  the  way  of  the  subjugation  of  the  country. 

874.  Spanish  Policy. — The  accession  of  the  Sagasta 
ministry  to  power,  in  October,  1897,  was  followed  by  the 
recall  of  Weyler,  who  was  replaced  by  Ramon  Blanco  as 
governor-general.  Under  the  more  liberal  policy  of 
Sagasta,  conditions  in  Cuba  promised  for  a  time  material 
improvement.  The  reconcentrados  —  people  from  the 
country  districts  who  had  been  compelled  to  give  up  their 
homes  and  live  in  the  towns,  where  their  crowrded  condi 
tion  and  lack  of  subsistence  had  bred  great  suffering — 
were  given  greater  opportunities  to  work,  and  even 
allowed  to  return,  in  some  cases,  to  their  plantations. 


504  EXPANSION  [1898 

Imprisoned  American  citizens  were  released,  and  the 
exportation  of  tobacco,  which  had  been  prohibited,  was 
again  allowed  to  a  limited  extent.  A  plan  for  autono 
mous  government  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  promulgated  by 
royal  decree  in  November,  promised  the  Cubans  a  legis 
lative  assembly,  and  local  assemblies  for  the  provinces 
and  municipalities;  but  the  control  to  be  retained  by 
Spain  was  still  so  great  that  the  autonomy  was  more 
nominal  than  real.  A  cabinet,  all  but  one  of  whose 
members  were  Cubans,  was  appointed  in  January,  1898; 
but  the  whole  plan  was  summarily  rejected  by  the  insur 
gents,  who  declared  their  purpose  to  accept  nothing  short 
of  independence.  The  efforts  of  Blanco  to  negotiate  with 
the  insurgent  generals,  Gomez  and  Garcia,  were  unsuc 
cessful,  and  the  guerrilla  warfare  continued. 

875.  The  Policy  of  the  Administration. — In  his  annual 
message  in  December,  1897,  President  McKinley  reviewed 
the  Cuban  situation  at  length,  and  announced  that,  while 
the  United  States  expected  Spain  to  restore  order  in  Cuba 
without  unnecessary  delay,  ' '  a  reasonable  chance  ' ' 
should  be  given  ' '  to  prove  the  asserted  efficacy  of  the 
new  order  of  things  ' '  ;  but  that  "if  it  shall  hereafter 
appear  to  be  a  duty  imposed  by  our  obligations  to  our 
selves,  to  civilization  and  humanity,  to  intervene  with 
force,  it  shall  be  without  fault  on  our  part,  and  only 
because  the  necessity  for  such  action  will  be  so  clear  as 
to  command  the  support  and  approval  of  the  civilized 
world."  The  reports  of  American  consuls  regarding  the 
pitiable  condition  of  the  reconcentrados  led  to  renewed 
efforts  for  their  relief.  A  public  appeal  was  issued  for 
funds,  and  a  national  Cuban  Relief  Committee  was 
appointed.  By  these  means  a  large  sum  of  money  was 
raised,  and  considerable  quantities  of  supplies  were  sent 
to  Cuba. 


1898]  LOSS   OF   THE  MAINE  5°5 

876.  The  De  Lome  Affair. — The  final  decision  to  put  an 
end  by  force  to  a  situation  which  was   rapidly  becoming 
intolerable  was    materially  hastened    by  two  unfortunate 
events.      February   8,    1898,    the    ''Cuban  Junta,"    as   it 
was  called,  at  New  York,  representing  the  Cuban  insur 
gents,  published  a  private   letter  which  had  been   stolen 
from  the  mails,  written   by  Sailor   Dupuy  de   Lome,    the 
Spanish  minister  at  Washington,  to  the  editor  of  a  Spanish 
newspaper.      The  letter  referred  in  terms  of  extreme  dis 
paragement    to    the     President,    and    charged    him    with 
"catering  to   the  rabble."      The    minister    admitted  the 
authenticity   of  the    letter,    and  at   once    resigned.      The 
Spanish    government     disclaimed     responsibility    for    the 
letter,  or  sympathy  with  its  objectionable  sentiments ;   but 
the  affair  left  a  painful  impression. 

877.  The  Loss  of  the  Maine. — Ostensibly  on  a  friendly 
visit,  but  in  reality  to  afford  protection   to   American  in 
terests  in  Havana,  the  battleship  Maine  had  been  sent  to 
Havana   in    the    latter   part    of  January,    1898.      On    the 
1 5th   of  February,    the   day  after   the    receipt   of   a   note 
from   the  Spanish   government  repudiating  the   De  Lome 
letter,  the  Maine  was  destroyed  by  an  explosion,  and  266 
of  the  crew  killed  or  drowned.      Captain  Sigsbee,  in  tele 
graphing  a  brief  report  of  the  disaster,  urged  that  judg 
ment  be  suspended  until  the  cause  of  the  explosion  could 
be  determined,  and  the  responsibility  fixed.      A  proposal 
from  Spain  for  a  joint  inquiry  was  declined  by  the  United 
States,    and  each  country  conducted  an  independent  in 
vestigation.      The    American    board    of  inquiry   reported 
that  the  explosion  was  due  to  a  submarine  mine,  but  that 
there   was    no    evidence    to   show   who    was    responsible. 
The  Spanish  board  reported  that  the  explosion  had  taken 
place  inside  the   vessel,  and   had   not   been   caused   from 
outside. 


5  o  6  EXPANSION  [1898 

878.  The  Impending  Crisis — March  27,  1898,  President 
McKinley  proposed  that  Spain  grant  an  armistice  in  Cuba 
until  October  I ,  and  revoke  the  decrees  against  tire  rccon- 
centrados;  and  offered  to  use  his  influence  to  bring  about 
peace.      In   reply,    Spain   offered  to  suspend  hostilities  if 
the  insurgents  would  ask  for  it,  and  to  entrust  the  arrange 
ment  of  peace  to   the  Cuban    Parliament,   which  was  to 
meet  May  4.      The  reply  was  pronounced  unsatisfactory. 
The  Americans  still  in  Cuba,  including  the  consuls,  began 
to   leave.      A   protest  from   the  autonomous  government 
against  intervention  by  the  United  States,  and  a  declara 
tion  by  the  Cuban  Junta  that  intervention  without  recog 
nition  of  the  Cuban   Republic  would  be   resisted  by  the 
insurgents,  were  followed  by  a  joint  note  from  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the    leading   European    Powers,    expressing 
their  hope  for  a  peaceful   solution   of  the  difficulty.      On 
the    loth    of  April  an    unconditional    armistice  was   pro 
claimed  by  Spain,    but  the  proclamation  came  too  late. 
The  next  day  President  McKinley  sent  a  special  message 
to  Congress,  urging  the  impropriety  of  recognizing  "the 
so-called  Cuban  Republic  "  or  the  belligerent  status  of  the 
insurgents,    declaring    that    "the   war    must  stop,"    and 
asking  authority  to  intervene  by  force  and  end  hostilities. 

879.  Declaration  of  War. — In  March,  Congress,  at  the 
request  of  the  President,   had  appropriated   $50,000,000 
for  the  national  defence.      On  the  receipt  of  the  message 
of  April    11,  Congress  passed  resolutions  declaring  that 
the  people  of  Cuba  ' '  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  free  and 
independent,"  but  disclaiming  any  intention  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  of  "exercising  sovereignty,  jurisdic 
tion,  or  control  "  over  the  island  "  except  for  the  pacifica 
tion  thereof"  ;  demanding  that  Spain  "at  once  relinquish 
its  authority  and  government"  in  Cuba;  and  "directing 
and  empowering  ' '  the  President  to  use  force  to  give  effect 


1898]  MANILA  5°7 

to  the  resolutions.  As  Spain  refused  to  accept  the  ulti 
matum  forthwith  submitted  by  the  United  States,  diplo 
matic  relations  between  the  two  countries  ceased ;  and 
on  April  25  Congress  passed  a  formal  declaration  of  war. 

880.  Preparations  for   War. — For    some   weeks    before 
hostilities  actually  broke  out,  both  Spain  and  the  United 
States    had    been    making    active    preparations    for    war. 
Ships  of  war  were  bought  abroad,  and  many  vessels  suit 
able    for    naval    purposes  were    purchased    at  home  and 
refitted.      Coast  fortifications  were  strengthened,  and  the 
principal   harbors   mined.      On  April   23 — two  days  after 
the  date  on  which,   by  the  declaration  of  Congress,  the 
war  had  begun — the   President  called  for  125,000  volun 
teers  ;    and  these,    with  the   troops  of  the    regular   army, 
were  assembled  at  Chickamauga,  Tampa,  and  other  con 
venient  points. 

881.  Manila. — The  first  battle  of  the  war  took  place  in 
the  bay  of  Manila.      Commodore  Dewey,  in  command  of 
the   American  squadron   in   Asiatic   waters,    attacked  the 
Spanish  fleet  at   Manila  on  the   morning  of  May  I,  and 
totally  destroyed  it.      The  defences  at  Cavite  were  also 
forced  to  surrender,  and  the  city  of  Manila,  though  not  at 
once  occupied,  was  under  American  control.      The  two 
fleets  were  unequally  matched,  and  the  Spanish   admiral 
was  taken  by  surprise ;   but  the  unexpected  and  decisive 
victory  aroused  great   enthusiasm    in  the   United  States. 
The  Philippine  insurgents,  under  the  lead  of  Aguinaldo, 
were  given  arms  from  the  arsenal  at  Cavite,  and  in  the 
course  of  the   next  two  months  compelled   the   Spanish 
troops  to  concentrate  in  Manila.      American  troops  from 
San    Francisco,    under   the   command    of   Major-General 
Merritt,    arrived   the   last  of  June;    and   on    the    I3th    of 
August  the  city  was  taken  by  a  joint  attack  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces. 


5o8  EXPANSION  [1898 

882,  The  Santiago  Campaign. — Three   days   before  the 
formal  declaration  of  war,  President  McKinley  had  pro 
claimed  a  blockade  of  the  north  coast  of  Cuba;    and  a 
squadron  from  Key  West,  under  Rear- Admiral  Sampson, 
was  at  once  dispatched  to  make  the  blockade  effective. 
A  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral   Cervera,  collected  at  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands  on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  arrived 
at  Santiago  de   Cuba,  on  the  south  coast,   May   19,  and 
was    there   blockaded    by   an    American    squadron    under 
Commodore  Schley.    June  22  an  American  force  of  14,000 
regulars  and  2500  volunteers,  under  command  of  Major- 
General  Shafter,  landed  at  Daiquiri,  seventeen  miles  from 
Santiago.      In  the  face  of  great  natural  disadvantages  and 
stubborn  resistance,  they  took  the  Spanish  outposts  at  La 
Quasima  on  the  24th,  and  on  July  I  stormed  the  defences 
on  the  heights  of  San  Juan  and   Caney.      Two  days  later 
the  Spanish  fleet  attempted  to  escape   from  the  harbor, 
only    to    be    destroyed    by    Sampson's    squadron,       The 
Spanish  lost  four  cruisers  and  two  torpedo-boat  destroyers, 
about  600  men   killed  or  drowned,  and  upwards  of  1700 
prisoners.      Santiago  still  holding  out,  it  was  bombarded; 
on   the   i /th   it   surrendered,   together   with  most  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name.      The  Spanish  troops  were 
sent  back  to   Spain.      In   the  mean  time,    the  American 
army  had  become  so  weakened  by  privation  and  disease 
as  to  make  necessary  its  removal  from  the  country;   and 
the  entire  body  of  troops  was  accordingly  transported  to 
a  camp  at  Montauk,  on   Long   Island.      Their  place  was 
taken  by  troops,  most  of  them  colored,  selected  because 
thought    to    be    "immune,"    that    is,    not    likely   to    be 
attacked  by  yellow  fever  or  other  tropical  diseases. 

883.  The  Occupation  of  Porto  Rico. — In  May,  Sampson's 
fleet  had  bombarded  the  defences  of  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico, 
but  without  particular  results.      The  invasion  of  Porto  Rico 


1898]  PEACE  5°9 

followed  upon  the  surrender  of  Santiago.  The  American 
expedition,  made  up  chiefly  of  volunteers,  was  under  the 
command  of  Major-General  Miles,  the  commanding  gen 
eral  of  the  United  States  army.  Landing  on  the  southern 
coast  the  last  of  July,  the  Americans  gained  control,  by 
the  middle  of  August,  of  the  larger  part  of  the  island, 
nowhere  encountering  serious  opposition,  and  even  being 
welcomed  by  the  inhabitants.  Although  the  campaign 
was  attended  with  none  of  the  hardships  of  that  against 
Santiago,  the  troops  nevertheless  suffered  severely  from 
fever  and  other  diseases. 

884.  Friction  with   the   Cubans. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  war,  the  Cuban  insurgents  had  received  supplies  from 
the  American  troops,  and  in  June  a  body  of  them,  under 
General  Garcia,  had  cooperated  with  an  American  force 
in  taking  Guantanamo,  about  thirty  miles  east  of  Santiago. 
As  the  campaign  went  on,  however,  joint  action  became 
more   and  more   difficult;   and  when,  in   the  negotiations 
for  the  surrender  of  Santiago,    General   Garcia  was   not 
consulted,   and   afterward   the    Cuban    soldiers   were  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  city,  he  and  his  followers  withdrew, 
and  for  a  time  operated  independently. 

885.  Peace. — It  was  evident  from  the  first  that  Spain 
could  not  hope  for  final   success  in  a  war  with  the  United 
States ;    and  the   loss   of  the   Spanish   colonies,    together 
with  the  overwhelming  superiority  of  the  American  navy, 
left   Spain   no   other   alternative   than   to   sue   for   peace. 
Preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  Washington,  August 
12,    the   French   ambassador  acting  on   behalf  of  Spain. 
Special  commissioners  were  appointed  to  arrange  for  the 
evacuation  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.      The  peace  commis 
sioners  of  the  two  countries  met  at  Paris,  October  I,  and 
on  December  10  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed.      By  the 
treaty,  Spain  renounced  sovereignty  over  Cuba,  and  ceded 


5 1  °  EXPANSION  [1898 

to  the  United  States  Porto  Rico  and  other  Spanish  West 
Indian  islands,  the  island  of  Guam,  in  the  Ladrones, 
already  occupied  by  an  American  force,  and  the  Philip 
pines.  The  United  States  agreed  to  pay  Spain  $20,000,- 
ooo,  and  to  admit  Spanish  ships  and  goods  to  Philippine 
ports  for  ten  years  on  the  same  terms  as  were  accorded  to 
American  ships  and  merchandise.  There  was  strong 
opposition  to  the  treaty  in  the  Senate,  principally  on 
account  of  the  proposed  retention  of  the  Philippines  by 
the  United  States;  but  it  was  finally  ratified,  February  6, 
1899,  and  the  exchange  of  ratifications  in  April  completed 
the  formal  restoration  of  peace. 

886.  Finances  of  the  War. — A  war  revenue  act,  brought 
forward   by   Mr.    Dingley  in   April,    1898,    increased   the 
internal-revenue    taxes    on    beer    and    tobacco,    imposed 
stamp  taxes  on  most  legal  and  business  documents,  bank 
checks,  proprietary  articles,  etc.,  and  authorized  the  issue 
of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $400,000,000.      The  war  loan 
was  popular,  and   was   largely  oversubscribed ;   while  the 
growing   volume   of  trade   enabled   the   country   to   bear 
without  difficulty  the  unlooked-for  expenses  of  the  war. 

887.  Foreign  Relations. — A  report  gained  currency  early 
in  the  war,  to  the  effect  that  the  formation  of  some  sort 
of  a  European  coalition  to  aid  Spain  had  been  prevented 
by  the  refusal  of  Great  Britain  to  take  part  in  it.      This, 
together  with   other   friendly  acts   on  the  part   of  Great 
Britain  during  the  progress  of  the  war,  caused  the  popular 
feeling    toward    that    country    to     become,    for    a    time, 
extraordinarily  cordial.      There  was  much  talk  about  an 
Anglo-American  alliance,  and  an  Anglo-American  League 
was  formed  in  London.      In  May,   1898,  a  joint  commis 
sion    was    created    to   arrange    a    settlement   of  pending 
differences    between    the    two    countries.      On    the    other 
hand,  reports  that  Germany  had  planned  to  interfere  in 


1897] 


HA  IV A II 


the  Philippines  led  to  some  manifestations  of  ill-feeling 
and  resentment,  which  fortunately,  however,  did  not 
pass  far  beyond  the  field  of  newspaper  and  partisan  dis 
cussion. 

888.  Hawaii.— In  June,  1897,  President  McKinley 
transmitted  to  the  Senate  a  treaty  providing  for  the 
annexation  of  Hawaii.  In  the  Senate  the  treaty  encoun- 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

tered  strong  opposition,  the  effect  of  annexation  upon  the 
sugar  industry  in  the  United  States  being  one  of  the  chief 
points  considered.  As  it  appeared  that  the  two-thirds 
majority  necessary,  under  the  Constitution,  to  ratify  the 
treaty  could  probably  not  be  obtained,  resort  was  had  to 
a  joint  resolution.  In  this  form  the  proposition  received 
the  approval  of  both  Houses  of  Congress,  and  August  12 
Hawaii  passed  formally  into  the  possession  of  the  United 
States.  Commissioners  were  at  once  appointed  to  draw 
up  a  plan  of  government.  The  commissioners  made  their 
report  in  December,  but  no  action  under  it  was  taken  by 
Congress.  Hawaii  continued  under  military  government 
until  April,  1900,  when  a  bill  establishing  a  Territorial 


5 i  2  EXPANSION  [  1 8  9  7 

government,  making  the  Hawaiians  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  and  giving  the  Territory  a  delegate  in  Congress, 
passed  both  Houses  and  received  the  approval  of  the 
President. 

889.  Currency  Reform. — The  failure  of  the  monetary 
commissioners  (§  872)  to  secure  the  opening  of  the  Indian 
mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  did  not,  apparently, 
discourage  that  body,  and  the  commissioners  in  Europe 
continued  to  be  for  some  time  active  on  behalf  of  bimetal 
lism.  In  the  mean  time,  hopeful  steps  in  the  direction  of 
currency  reform  were  being  taken  at  home.  A  conference 
of  prominent  financiers  and  business  men  met  at  Indian 
apolis  in  January,  1897,  and  the  discussions  attracted 
general  attention.  In  October,  Secretary  Gage  submitted 
a  plan  of  reform,  including,  among  other  features,  the 
issue  of  refunding  gold  bonds,  and  changes  in  the  national 
banking  law  so  as  to  increase  the  issue  and  circulation  of 
bank-notes.  The  outbreak  of  war  with  Spain,  however, 
joined  to  the  active  opposition  of  the  silver  men  in  Con 
gress,  for  a  time  prevented  further  action.  In  the  framing 
of  the  war  revenue  act,  the  silver  contention  was  compro 
mised  by  providing  for  the  coinage  of  the  silver  in  the 
treasury,  at  the  rate  of  $1,500,000  a  month,  and  the  sus 
pension  of  further  issues  of  silver  certificates.  The  demand 
for  reform  culminated  in  the  passage  of  a  bill,  in  March, 
1900,  declaring  the  gold  dollar  the  unit  of  value,  all  other 
money  to  be  kept  at  a  parity  with  it ;  and  establishing  a 
gold  reserve  of  $i  50,000,000,  pledged  for  the  redemption 
of  greenbacks  and  treasury  notes,  and  to  be  maintained, 
if  necessary,  by  the  issue  of  bonds.  Provision  was  also 
made  for  refunding  the  national  debt,  the  gradual  replace 
ment  of  treasury  notes  by  silver  certificates,  and  the  ex 
tension  of  the  privileges  of  national  banks  in  regard  to 
issuing  notes. 


1899]  ANTI-TRUST  AGITATION  5*3 

890.  The  Pacific  Railroads. — During  President  McKin- 
ley's  administration  the  United  States  largely  ended  its 
connection  with  the  various  Pacific  railroads,  which  had 
been   originally  constructed   with   financial  aid  from  the 
national  government.      In  November,   1897,  a  sale  of  the 
Union   Pacific   Railway,  under  proceedings  begun  by  the 
government  towards  the  close  of  Mr.  Cleveland's  admin 
istration,    was   effected,    the   United   States   receiving   an 
amount  equal   to  the  principal  and  interest  of  its  claim. 
In  February,  1898,  the  sale  of  the  Kansas  Pacific  Railway 
was  also  effected,  under  terms  somewhat  less  favorable  to 
the  government.      Similar  arrangements  were  later  made 
with  the  Central  Pacific  and  Western  Pacific  roads. 

891.  Anti-Trust  Agitation. — The    period    of  President 
McKinley's  administration  was  distinguished  by  a  wide 
spread  popular  discussion  of  trusts,  and  by  many  attempts 
to  regulate  or  suppress  trusts  by  law.      Many  of  the  State 
legislatures  devoted  a  large  share  of  their  attention  to  the 
question,   and   in   some  of  the   States   severe   laws   were 
enacted.      A  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court,   in  March, 
1897,  that  the  Anti-Trust  Act  of  1890  applied  to  railroads 
as  well  as  to  manufacturing  and  trading  corporations,  and 
that  the  act  made  illegal  any  combination  in  restraint  of 
trade  or  commerce,  whether  the  restraint  were  reasonable 
or  not,  made  a  deep  impression.      During  1899,  however, 
trusts   and   industrial   combinations   were    formed   on   an 
extraordinary   scale,    many   of  them  under   the    laws    of 
Delaware  and  New  Jersey,  which  are  particularly  favor 
able  to  such  incorporation.      The  result  was  a  revival  of 
popular  opposition  to  great  aggregations  of  capital,  and  a 
renewed  demand  for  State  and  national  action.      Confer 
ences  on  the  subject  were  held  at  Chicago  and  St.  Louis, 
and  it  was  thought  by  some  that  the  question  of  trusts 
would  be  a  leading  issue  in  the  coming  presidential  cam- 


5 1 4  EXPANSION  [  1 8  9  7 

paign.  Just  before  the  adjournment  of  Congress,  in  June, 
1900,  a  proposed  anti-trust  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
was  debated  in  the  Senate,  but  failed  to  receive  the  neces 
sary  two-thirds  vote ;  while  a  bill  to  amend  the  act  of 
i  890,  so  as  to  give  the  United  States  increased  powers  of 
control  over  trusts,  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Represen 
tatives,  but  disposed  of  in  the  Senate  by  reference  to  a 
committee. 

892.  The  Civil  Service. — In  his  inaugural  address,  Presi 
dent  McKinley  announced  his  adherence  to  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  civil-service  reform ;  and  this,  together  with  his 
previous  record  in  Congress,  inspired  much  confidence 
among  those  who  had  most  at  heart  the  complete  over 
throw  of  the  spoils  system  in  national  administration.  It 
was  further  given  out  that  fourth-class,  or  "  presidential," 
postmasters,  not  shown  to  be  unfit,  would  be  allowed  to 
serve  out  their  four-year  terms.  In  July,  1897,  an 
executive  order  directed  that  removals  from  places  filled 
by  competitive  examination  should  be  made  only  for 
cause,  and  that  the  removed  official  should  be  given  a 
hearing  in  his  own  defence.  Violations  of  the  rule,  how 
ever,  soon  began  to  multiply.  Attempts  to  enforce 
observance  by  judicial  process  failed,  the  courts  holding 
that  the  enforcement  of  the  rules  was  a  matter  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  President.  The  policy  of  the  President 
in  following  the  advice  of  senators  from  the  State  con 
cerned,  in  making  appointments  to  office,  resulted  in  the 
selection  of  many  unfit  and  highly  objectionable  persons 
for  important  positions ;  but  protests  were  generally  dis 
regarded.  In  the  departments  at  Washington,  particularly 
the  Treasury  Department,  the  observance  of  the  civil-ser 
vice  rules  was  lax ;  while  an  executive  order  of  July  29, 
1 899,  withdrawing  several  thousand  places  from  the  classi 
fied  service,  was  regarded  by  reformers  as  a  serious 


1897]  THE  KLONDIKE   GOLD- FIELDS  515 

"backward  step."  In  Congress  there  was  some  display 
of  hostility  to  reform,  and  the  competitive  principle  was 
disregarded  in  the  act  making  provision  for  the  twelfth 
census.  A  considerable  number  of  commendable  ap 
pointments  did  something  to  excuse,  in  the  public  mind, 
the  conduct  of  the  Administration  in  reference  to  other 
positions;  but  the  net  effect  of  President  McKinley's 
course  in  the  matter  of  the  civil  service  was  discouraging. 

893.  The    Klondike    Gold-fields. — In    the     summer     of 
1897,  the  report  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Klondike 
region,   on   the  border  between   Alaska  and   the   British 
possessions,  reached  the  United  States.      The  news  was 
followed  by  a  rush   of  emigration  to  the   region,    which 
continued  through  the  following  year.      The  suffering  and 
loss  of  life,  caused  by  the  severity  of  the  climate  and  the 
hardships  of  the   overland   route,  served  but  little  to  dis 
courage   the    gold-seekers.      The    deposit    proved   to    be 
exceedingly  rich,  and  the  experiences  of  miners  in  Cali 
fornia,  in  1 848-9,  were  repeated ;   while  the  discovery  of 
the  new  supplies  of  gold  was  of  political  importance,  as 
tending   to   offset   some   of  the   arguments   of  free-silver 
advocates.      The   attempt  of  the   Canadian   government, 
within  whose  territory  the  principal  deposits  lay,  to  exact 
royalties  on  gold  exported,  and  otherwise  to  secure  the 
interests  of  its  own  people  in   the  gold-fields,  occasioned 
some  ill-feeling  among  the  Americans.      Notwithstanding 
its  rapidly  growing  population  and  important  commercial 
interests,  Alaska  remained  without  effective  governmental 
organization  until  June,   1900,  when  an  Act  of  Congress 
erected  it  into  a  civil  and  judicial  district,  with  a  governor, 
a  system  of  courts,  and  a  special  code  of  laws. 

894.  Samoa. — The  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
Samoa    underwent    a     radical    change    during    President 
McKinley's  administration.     By  the  Berlin  treaty  of  1889, 


5 1 6  EXPANSION  [  1 8  9  7 

the  affairs  of  Samoa  were  placed  under  the  joint  super 
vision  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany. 
On  the  death  of  King  Malietoa,  in  August,  1898,  a  dis 
pute  arose  over  the  choice  of  his  successor.  The  Germans 
supported  Mataafa,  while  the  English  and  Americans 
favored  Malietoa  Tanu,  a  son  of  the  late  king.  The 
election  of  Mataafa  by  the  native  chiefs  was  set  aside  by 
a  decision  of  the  chief-justice,  an  American;  but  the 
German  consul  refused  to  recognize  Malietoa  as  king. 
In  January,  1899,  the  Malietoan  government  was  over 
thrown,  and  a  provisional  government  set  up.  Disputes 
and  complications  led  rapidly  to  war,  and  in  March  Brit 
ish  and  American  vessels  bombarded  a  number  of  Samoan 
villages.  At  the  suggestion  of  Germany,  which  dis 
approved  of  the  course  taken  by  the  other  Powers,  a  joint 
commission  was  created  to  deal  with  the  matter.  The 
commissioners  succeeded  in  having  the  office  of  king 
abolished,  and  a  provisional  government,  composed  of  the 
consuls  of  the  three  Powers,  set  up.  In  November,  a 
partition  of  the  islands  was  agreed  upon.  In  return  for 
the  cession  by  Germany  of  some  islands  in  the  south 
Pacific,  Great  Britain  relinquished  to  the  United  States 
and  Germany  its  claims  in  the  Samoan  group,  and  the 
two  Powers  then  divided  the  islands  between  them.  The 
United  States  received  the  island  of  Tutuila,  with  the 
important  harbor  of  Pago-Pago,  and  the  other  islands  east 
of  longitude  171°  west. 

895.  The  Proposed  Isthmian  Canal. — The  agitation  in 
favor  of  national  aid  in  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic 
canal  across  Central  America  (§  834),  which  had  not 
been  allowed  to  decline,  received  new  impetus  as  a  result 
of  the  war  with  Spain,  and  the  sudden  rise  of  important 
American  interests  in  the  Pacific.  In  July,  1897,  a 
Nicaragua  Canal  Commission  was  appointed,  to  report  on 


1900]  THE   CLAYTON-BULGER    TREATY  517 

the  feasibility  and  cost  of  a  canal  across  Nicaragua,  that 
country  at  the  same  time  apparently  withdrawing  certain 
opposition  it  had  lately  shown.  In  his  annual  message 
in  December,  1898,  President  McKinley  recommended 
the  construction  of  a  canal  to  be  controlled  by  the  United 
States ;  but  a  bill  to  give  effect  to  the  recommendation 
failed  to  pass  both  Houses  of  Congress.  An  appropriation 
of  $1,000,000  was  made,  however,  for  the  further  inves 
tigation  of  practicable  loutes.  The  report  of  the  Com 
mission,  submitted  in  May,  1899,  recommended  the 
adoption  of  the  route  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and 
estimated  the  cost  of  the  canal  at  $118,000,000.  An 
other  commission,  appointed  in  June,  reported  in  favor  of 
the  same  route,  but  estimated  the  cost  at  $200,000,000. 

896.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty. — In  connection  with 
the  movement  for  a  canal  exclusively  under  American 
control,  the  desirability  of  abrogating  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
treaty  of  1850,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  by  which  the  two  Powers  had  agreed  that  neither 
should  attempt  to  exercise  exclusive  control  over  any 
canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  was  much  dis 
cussed.  In  February,  1900,  a  treaty  was  signed  by 
representatives  of  the  two  countries,  by  which  Great 
Britain  "  renounced  all  right  to  joint  construction,  owner 
ship,  or  maintenance  "  of  an  isthmian  canal,  while  agree 
ing  to  join  with  the  United  States  in  guaranteeing  the 
neutrality  of  the  canal.  In  the  guarantee  of  neutrality 
other  nations  were  to  be  asked  to  unite.  Opposition  to 
neutralization  resulted  in  an  amendment  to  the  treaty  in 
the  Senate,  providing  that  the  treaty  should  not  operate 
to  prevent  "measures  which  the  United  States  may  find 
it  necessary  to  take  for  securing  by  its  own  forces  the 
defence  of  the  United  States  and  the  maintenance  of 
public  order. ' '  The  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  Senate 


5 1  8  EXPANSION  [  1 8  9  9 

December  20,  but  with  this  amendment  and  a  further  one 
declaring  the  Clayton-Bui wer  treaty  superseded.  Great 
Britain  refused  to  accept  the  treaty  with  these  amendments. 

897.  The  Hague  Conference.  —  In  August,    1898,  Count 
Muravieff,  the  Russian  foreign   minister,  proposed  to  the 
representatives  of  other  governments  at  St.  Petersburg!! 
the    holding    of   an    international    congress,    to    consider 
means    of   stopping    the    increase  of   armaments    among 
nations,   and  of  bringing  about  permanent  peace.      The 
proposal,  renewed  in  more  definite  form  in  January,  1899, 
awakened  world-wide  interest.      The  conference,  compris 
ing   delegates   from    27   countries,   including   the   United 
States,    met  at  The   Hague,    May    18,    and   remained   in 
session    until    July    29.      The    conclusions   reached    were 
embodied  in  a  number  of  declarations  and  resolutions,  the 
most  important  of  which  pledged  the  Powers  agreeing  to 
it  to  resort  to  mediation  or  arbitration,  wherever  possible, 
for  the  settlement  of  international  disputes,  and  provided 
for  a  permanent  international  tribunal  to  deal  with  arbitra 
tion  cases.      The  arbitration  proposals  were  ratified  by  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  February  5,   1900. 

898.  War  Department   Investigation. — The    reports     of 
privation  and  disease  among  the  American  troops,  both 
at  home  and  in  Cuba,  during  the  war  with   Spain,  led  to 
general  public  criticism  of  the  management  of  the  war,  and 
to  charges  of  incompetency,  favoritism,  and  corruption  in 
the  War  Department.     Indignation  was  especially  aroused 
by  the  alarming  prevalence  of  typhoid  fever  in  the  home 
camps.      The  reply  of  friends  of  the  Administration  that 
the  charges  were  grossly  exaggerated,  and  that  such  un 
favorable  conditions  as  existed  were  largely  the  result  of 
ignorance  and   neglect  on   the  part  of  the   troops   them 
selves,    failed   to   satisfy   the   public ;    and   in   September, 
1898,  the  Secretary  of  War  asked  for  an  investigation  of 


1899]  THE   WAR  IN    THE  PHILIPPINES  5J9 

his  department.  The  commission  of  inquiry,  after  taking 
considerable  testimony  and  visiting  the  camps  in  the 
United  States,  made  their  report  in  February,  1899.  The 
report  dismissed  the  charges  of  dishonesty  as  not  proven, 
and  pronounced  the  general  conduct  of  the  war  "highly 
creditable  to  the  department  and  to  the  country  ' ' ;  but 
the  War  Department  was  criticised  for  lack  of  judgment 
in  specific  instances,  as  well  as  for  its  imperfect  organiza 
tion  and  "red  tape. "  In  July,  Secretary  Alger  resigned, 
his  place  being  taken  by  Elihu  Root,  of  New  York. 

899.  The  Beef  Episode. — The  assertion  of  General  Miles, 
in  the  course  of  the  investigation,  that  the  canned  beef 
furnished  the  troops  was  unfit  for  food,  coupled  with  the 
description   of  the  refrigerated   beef  as  "embalmed,"  or 
chemically  preserved,  made  a  great  sensation,  and  led  to 
a  scandalous  denunciation   of  General  Miles  by  Commis 
sary-General   Eagan.      Eagan  was    court-martialled   and 
sentenced  to  dismissal  from  the  army;   but  the  President 
commuted  the  sentence  to  six  years'  suspension  from  rank 
and  duty,  without  loss  of  pay.     A  military  court  of  inquiry 
sustained   General   Miles's  criticism   of  the   canned  beef, 
and  pronounced  the  purchase  of  7,000,000  pounds  of  it 
"  a  colossal  error,"  but  reported  that  the  charge  concern 
ing  refrigerated  beef  was  not  borne  out  by  the  evidence. 

900.  The  War  in  the  Philippines. — The  transfer  of  the 
Philippines  to  the  United   States,  at  the  close  of  the  war 
with   Spain,  was  deeply  resented  by  Aguinaldo   and   his 
followers,   who  desired  independence.      The   instructions 
issued    to   General   Otis,   in   command   of  the   American 
forces  at  Manila,  asserted  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States   over  the  islands,   and  declared  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  to  be  one  of  "benevolent  assimilation"; 
but  they  further  stated  that  those  who  resisted  were  to  be 
dealt  with  by  ' '  the  strong  arm  of  authority. ' '      In  Jan- 


520 


EXPANSION 


[1899 


uary,   1899,  three  civil  commissioners  were  appointed  to 
act  with  General  Otis  and  Admiral  Dewey  in  the  admin- 


MAP  OF  THE 


....  ^PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


•MJNDORO     SEA 

Zamboanga 


125  ^.SARANGANI    18. 


BORMAY   fc   CO.,   N.Y. 


istration  of  affairs.      Before  their  arrival,  however,  hostili 
ties  began  between  the  Tagalos,  on  the  island  of  Luzon, 


1900]  THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES  521 

and  the  Americans,  the  latter  being  reinforced  by  about 
1 0,000  troops  from  the  United  States.  In  such  regular 
engagements  as  took  place,  the  Americans  were  generally 
successful,  and  gradually  pushed  their  way  into  remote 
parts  of  the  island,  and  the  contest,  on  the  part  of  the 
natives,  assumed  more  and  more  of  a  guerilla  character, 
but  was  for  some  time  without  substantial  results  so  far  as 
the  general  pacification  of  the  island  was  concerned. 
Various  negotiations  with  the  American  commissioners 
failed  because  of  the  insistence  of  the  Filipinos  upon  in 
dependence.  A  proclamation  of  amnesty  to  such  as 
should,  within  ninety  days,  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  United  States,  was  issued  in  June  1900,  but  failed  of 
general  acceptance,  and  hostilities  shortly  increased  in 
seriousness.  By  the  end  of  the  year,  however,  it  became 
evident  that  the  strength  of  the  insurrection  had  been 
broken;  and,  in  March  1901,  Aguinaldo  was  captured. 
He  soon  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  issued  a  mani 
festo  advising  his  followers  to  accept  the  rule  of  the  United 
States.  Elsewhere  than  in  Luzon,  American  rule  had 
from  the  first  been  accepted  with  comparatively  little 
opposition. 

901,  The  Government  of  the  Philippines. — The  failure  of 
Congress  to  make  provision  for  the  government  of  the 
Philippines  left  the  control  of  the  islands  in  the  hands 
of  the  President.  A  provisional  organization,  under  a 
military  governor,  was  effected  in  Negros,  and  municipal 
governments  were  nominally  established  at  several  places 
in  the  provinces  of  Manila  and  Cavite.  The  city  of  Manila, 
however,  remained  under  martial  law,  though  the  public 
schools  were  opened,  and  a  native  police  system  was  in 
augurated.  The  Sultan  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago  made 
an  agreement  recognizing  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States,  but  retaining  practical  independence  in  internal 


522  EXPANSION 

affairs.  In  February  1900,  the  Philippine  Commission 
made  a  report  and  outlined  a  scheme  of  government.  In 
the  same  month  a  new  commission  was  sent  out,  entrusted 
with  the  sole  power  of  appointment  and  legislation,  the 
military  governor  continuing  to  be  the  executive  head. 
Under  the  direction  of  the  commission  a  civil  service 
board  was  shortly  established.  In  January  1901,  Presi 
dent  McKinley,  in  a  special  message,  urged  Congress  to 
make  immediate  provision  for  the  establishment  of  civil 
government  in  the  Philippines,  but  no  action  was  taken 
save  the  adoption  of  an  amendment  to  the  Army  Bill, 
leaving  the  control  of  the  islands,  pending  further  legisla 
tion,  in  the  hands  of  the  President. 

902.  Cuba. — The  control  of  Cuba  passed  formally  into 
the  hands  of  the  United  States  January  I,  1899,  and  the 
last  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  shortly  afterward  embarked 
for  Spain.  The  administration  of  the  island  was  placed 
in  charge  of  a  military  governor-general,  with  army 
officers  as  governors  of  the  several  provinces  and  the  city 
of  Havana.  In  the  course  of  the  next  few  months,  a 
form  of  civil  government  was  gradually  put  in  operation, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  military  authorities.  Admin 
istrative  reforms  followed  rapidly;  the  system  of  taxation 
was  remodelled,  a  new  customs  tariff  put  in  operation, 
and  the  Cuban  coasting  trade  opened  to  American  vessels. 
The  disbandment  of  the  Cuban  army  was  also  effected, 
after  some  delay  and  opposition,  $3,000,000  having  been 
appropriated  by  the  United  States  for  the  payment  of  the 
troops.  Save  for  occasional  outbreaks  of  disorder  in 
different  parts  of  the  island,  peace  and  quiet  in  general 
prevailed.  The  cleaning  of  the  cities,  especially  Havana 
and  Santiago,  operated  greatly  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
yellow  fever.  The  appointment,  in  December,  of  Major- 
General  Leonard  Wood  to  succeed  General  Brooke  as 


9oo] 


PORTO  RICO 


523 


governor-general,  was  followed  by  further  legal  and 
administrative  reforms,  and  the  introduction  of  a  public- 
school  system  on  the  American  model. 

903.  Porto  Rico. — Porto  Rico  passed  formally  under  the 
control  of  the  United  States  October  18,  1898,  and 
General  Brooke  was  appointed  governor-general.  A 
customs  tariff,  in  which  no  preference  was  given  to  Ameri 
can  goods,  had  already  been  drawn  up,  at  the  direction 
of  the  War  Department.  Under  General  Guy  V.  Henry, 
who  succeeded  General  Brooke  in  December,  the  policy 
of  giving  the  Porto  Ricans  as  large  representation  as 
possible  in  official  appointments  was  followed,  and 
numerous  administrative  and  legal  reforms  were  inaugu 
rated.  An  Insular  Commission,  appointed  by  the  Presi 
dent  to  investigate  affairs  in  the  island,  reported  in 


A     T 


N     T     I     C  Q     C 


Aguadiilai    ., 

DASECHEO    I.     RJndi.-        Alii 


MAYAGUEZ 


''ManatiV     ';      '^'  ^X^?.'.     VIRGIN  , OS. 

kLare^i    \^, j  Aguos  Buenkk"    •     „_  ]"'''    CULEB><RA ' '• 


eS^MONA  i.  Cabo  R°, 


'CAJA  DE  MUERTOS    I, 


E     E     A      N 


SCALE   OF   MILES 
0  10  20  30          40 


PORTO  Rico. 

August,  1899,  recommending  various  reforms,  and  sub 
mitting  a  draft  of  a  code  of  laws.  A  reorganization  of  the 
civil  government,  in  the  interest  of  simplicity  and  economy, 
was  effected  by  General  George  W.  Davis,  who  had 
succeeded  General  Henry  in  April.  A  hurricane  which 


5 2  4  EXPANSION  [1900 

swept  over  the  island  in  August  caused  great  destruction 
of  property,  including  the  fruit  and  coffee  plantations, 
killed  more  than  2600  people,  and  left  250,000  persons 
destitute.  A  call  for  aid  met  with  quick  response  in  the 
United  States.  In  April,  1900,  Congress  established  a 
form  of  government  for  Porto  Rico.  The  act  provided 
for  a  governor  and  council — one  half  of  the  latter  to  be 
Porto  Ricans — appointed  by  the  President,  and  an  elected 
House  of  Delegates.  Most  of  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  so  far  as  applicable,  were  extended  to  the  island, 
and  the  United  States  was  to  be  represented  by  a  resident 
commissioner.  Mr.  Charles  H.  Allen,  of  Massachusetts, 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  was  appointed  the  first 
governor.  A  census  of  Porto  Rico  taken  in  November 
and  December,  under  the  direction  of  the  War  Depart 
ment,  showed  a  population  of  953,243,  of  whom  589,426 
were  whites. 

904.  The  Porto  Rican  Tariff — To  meet  the  expenses  of 
the  civil  government,  the  Porto  Rican  act  of  April  1 2 
further  provided  for  the  imposition  of  tariff  duties,  on 
commerce  between  Porto  Rico  and  the  United  States,  of 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  existing  rates.  This  provision  was  to 
be  in  force  for  two  years.  The  discussion  of  this  portion 
of  the  act  attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole  country. 
In  his  message  of  December,  1899,  President  McKinley 
had  declared  it  to  be  ''our  plain  duty"  to  "abolish  all 
customs  tariffs  between  the  United  States  and  Porto 
Rico  "  ;  and  the  bill  as  first  drawn  provided  for  free  trade 
between  the  two  regions.  Strong  opposition  was  im 
mediately  manifested  by  friends  of  protected  industries, 
on  the  ground  not  only  of  danger  to  American  interests, 
but  of  the  dangerous  precedent  which  such  action  would 
establish  for  later  treatment  of  the  Philippines.  A 
proposition  which  the  President,  notwithstanding  his 


i9°°]  EXPANSION  AND  IMPERIALISM  525 

previous  declaration,  was  now  known  to  favor,  fixing  the 
tariff  rates  at  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  existing  rates,  on  the 
ground  that  the  revenue  was  needed  in  the  island,  was 
vigorously  opposed  by  the  Democrats  and  by  a  small  but 
influential  group  of  Republicans,  popularly  known  as 
"insurgents."  Aside  from  the  constitutional  argument, 
which  was  elaborated  at  great  length,  the  opponents  of  the 
measure  insisted  that  it  would  violate  good  faith  with 
Porto  Rico,  and  would  be  interpreted  as  a  surrender  to 
the  demands  of  protected  interests  in  the  United  States. 
To  conciliate  the  "insurgents,"  the  proportionate  rates 
were  reduced  to  fifteen  per  cent. ,  and  the  operation  of  the 
provision  limited  to  two  years.  The  final  vote  in  each 
House  was  close,  being  40  to  31  in  the  Senate,  and  161 
to  153  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  As  a  further 
concession,  Congress,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
President,  had  already  passed  an  act  appropriating  to  the 
immediate  needs  of  the  island  "all  money  collected  or  to 
be  collected  as  duties  on  products  of  Porto  Rico  in  the 
ports  of  the  United  States. ' '  The  reduction  of  the  tariff 
between  Porto  Rico  and  the  United  States  was  followed 
by  a  large  increase  in  both  the  exports  and  the  imports 
of  the  island. 

905.  Expansion  and  Imperialism. — The  decision  of  the 
President  to  retain  the  Philippines  at  the  close  of  the  war 
with  Spain,  together  with  the  failure  to  give  any  assurance 
of  ultimate  independence  to  the  conquered  territories, 
precipitated  a  general  and  absorbing  discussion  of  the 
policy  which  the  course  of  the  Administration  seemed  to 
favor.  On  the  side  of  ' '  expansion  ' '  were  arrayed  not 
only  many  radical  politicians,  who  wished  the  United 
States  to  adopt  "an  aggressive  foreign  policy,"  and  take 
an  active  part  in  "  world  politics,  "  but  many  conservative 
leaders  as  well,  who  argued  that  circumstances  had  com- 


526  EXPANSION  [  1 900 

pelled  us  to  take  charge  of  the  territory  won  from  Spain, 
and  that  the  new  responsibilities,  however  unwelcome, 
could  not  be  evaded.  On  the  other  hand,  the  opponents 
of  expansion,  or  the  anti-imperialists,  as  they  were  gen 
erally  called,  denied  the  necessity  or  propriety  of  exercising 
anything  more  than  a  temporary  protectorate  over  the 
Philippines,  and  insisted  that  the  United  States  ought 
plainly  to  declare  its  purpose  to  give  the  people  of  the 
islands  their  independence.  They  further  urged  that 
nothing  but  danger  could  attend  a  departure  from  the 
historic  policy  of  the  United  States  in  its  international 
relations,  pointed  out  the  unfitness  of  our  form  of  govern 
ment  for  the  administration  of  colonies  and  dependencies, 
and  cited  the  increased  military  and  naval  expenses  as  the 
logical  accompaniments  of  an  imperialistic  programme. 
The  discussion,  everywhere  earnest,  and  in  reality  involv 
ing  the  whole  question  of  the  future  of  the  United  States, 
was  embittered  by  extreme  acts  and  expressions  on  both 
sides;  while  the  failure  of  President  McKinley  to  take  a 
definite  stand  exposed  him  to  the  charge  of  weakness  and 
vacillation,  and  of  following  rather  than  leading  public 
opinion. 

906.  The  Election  of  1900.  —  The  presidential  cam 
paign  of  1900  turned  mainly  on  the  question  of  expansion, 
to  which  policy  the  Republican  party  was  regarded  as 
committed.  The  selection  of  the  principal  candidates  for 
President  was  long  foreseen.  The  Republican  national 
convention  met  at  Philadelphia  in  June,  and  renominated 
President  McKinley,  with  Theodore  Roosevelt,  governor 
of  New  York,  as  the  candidate  for  Vice-President.  The 
platform  indorsed  the  McKinley  administration,  declared 
allegiance  to  protection  and  the  gold  standard,  approved 
the  annexation  of  Hawaii,  and  called  for  the  construction 
and  control  of  an  isthmian  canal  by  the  United  States.  The 
policy  of  the  Administration  in  "maintaining  the  efficiency 


1897-8]  LEADING   EVENTS  527 

of  the  civil  service"  was  commended.  In  regard  to  the  new 
possessions,  the  platform  accepted  the  responsibilities  fol 
lowing  from  the  war  with  Spain,  promised  to  the  people 
of  the  acquired  territory  "the  largest  measure  of  self- 
government  consistent  with  their  welfare  and  our  duties," 
and  pledged  independence  and  self-government  to  Cuba. 
The  Democratic  convention  at  Kansas  City,  in  July, 
nominated  William  J.  Bryan,  of  Nebraska  (§  865),  for 
President,  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  of  Illinois  (§  854), 
for  Vice-President.  The  platform  declared  against  im 
perialism,  but  not  against  territorial  expansion,  "when  it 
takes  in  desirable  territory  which  can  be  erected  into 
States  in  the  Union,  and  whose  people  are  willing  and  fit 
to  become  American  citizens";  denounce  the  policy  of 
the  Republican  Administration  in  the  Philippines;  and 
reaffirmed  the  principles  of  the  Chicago  platform  of  1896, 
including  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  1 6  to  I. 
The  Democratic  candidates  were  indorsed  by  the  silver 
Republicans  and  the  Populists,  and  Mr.  Bryan  had 
also  the  endorsement  of  the  Anti-imperialistic  League. 
The  gold  Democrats,  while  making  no  nomination  for 
President,  declared  against  the  election  of  Mr.  Bryan. 
The  Republican  candidates  received  292  electoral  votes 

out  of  a  total  of  44^, 
*i  V 

907.  The  Leading  Events  of  President  McKinley's  ad 
ministration  were  as  follows : 

1897-1901 :   President  McKinley's  Term  of  Office §  869 

1897:  Anti-Trust  decision 891 

Monetary  commission  appointed...  872 

Arbitration  treaty  rejected 867 

Senate  recognition   of  Cuban   bel 
ligerency 873 

Nicaragua    canal     commission    ap 
pointed  895 


528  EXPANSION  [1898-9 

1897:   Dingley  tariff 870 

Order  extending  the  classified  ser 
vice  892 

Klondike  gold  excitement 893 

Spain   decrees  autonomy  for  Cuba 

and  Porto  Rico 874 

Sale  of  Union  Pacific  Railway  ....  890 
1898:  Monetary    conference    at    Indian 
apolis 889 

Sale  of  Kansas  Pacific  Railway.  .  .  .  890 

De  Lome  letter 876 

Loss  of  the  Maine 877 

President    McKinley   offers   media 
tion     between    Spain     and    the 

Cubans 878 

$50,000,000   appropriated    for  the 

national  defence 879 

Armistice  in  Cuba  proclaimed    by 

Spain 878 

McKinley's  war  message §  878 

Blockade  of  Cuba 882 

Call  for  125,000  volunteers 880 

Declaration  of  war  against  Spain.. .  879 

Battle  of  Manila  Bay 88 1 

Cervera  blockaded  at  Santiago.  ...  882 

Anglo-American  commission 887 

Landing  of  American  force  at  Dai 
quiri 882 

La  Quasima  taken  by  Americans.  .  882 
Guantanamo   taken    by   Americans 

and  Cubans 884 

War  revenue  act 886 

San    Juan    and    Caney    taken    by 

Americans 882 

Cervera's  fleet  destroyed 882 

Surrender  of  Santiago 882 

Occupation     of     Porto     Rico    by 

Americans 883 

Russian  peace  proposals 897 

Peace  preliminaries  signed 885 

Hawaii  annexed 888 

Manila  taken  bv  Americans. .  88 1 


1899,  I9°°]  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  529 

1898:  Porto     Rico     transferred     to     the 

United  States 9°3 

Treaty  of  peace <^5 

Secretary    Gage's    report    on    cur 
rency  reform 889 

1899:  Cuba  transferred  to  control   of  the 

United  States 9°2 

First    Philippine    commission     ap 
pointed  900 

Treaty    of    peace    ratified     by    the 
Senate 885 

Gen.    Geo.     W.    Davis    appointed 
governor  of  Porto  Rico 903 

Report  of  the  Nicaragua  canal  com 
mission 895 

Peace  conference  at  The  Hague.  .  .      897 

New  Nicaragua  canal    commission 
appointed 895 

Order   removing    places    from    the 
classified  service 892 

Report  of   the   Porto  Rico  insular 

commission §  903 

War  Department  investigation.  .  .  .      898 

Samoan  settlement 894 

Gen.     Leonard     Wood    appointed 
governor  of  Cuba 902 

President    McKinley    recommends 

free  trade  with  Porto  Rico 904 

1900:  Proposed    abrogation    of    Clayton- 

Bulwer  treaty 896 

Hague  arbitration  proposals  ratified 
by  the  Senate 897 

Report  on  the  War  Department  in 
vestigation  898 

Report  of  the  Philippine  commis 
sion 901 

Second  Philippine  commission  ap 
pointed 901 

Act  establishing  the  gold  standard.      889 
Act  appropriating  customs  revenues 

to  Porto  Rico 904 

Porto  Rico  government  act 903 


5  3°  EXPANSION  [1898-9 

1900:  Hawaiian  government  act 888 

The  election  of  1900. 906 

TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  The  Philippines  under  Spanish  rule. 

2.  Military  and  naval  reorganization,   1897-1900. 

3.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty. 

4.  English  colonial  administration. 

5.  Trusts. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

Aside  from  the  official  publications  of  the  government,  and 
the  daily  proceedings  of  Congress,  light  on  our  newest  history 
must  be  sought  chiefly  in  newspapers  and  periodicals.  The 
leading  magazines,  during  1898-99,  discussed  almost  every 
phase  of  the  war  with  Spain,  and  published  numerous  articles 
by  prominent  participants. 


APPENDIX   I 
DECLARATION    OF   INDEPENDENCE 

IN  CONGRESS,  JULY  4,  1776. 

A  DECLARATION  BY  THE  REPRESENTATIVES  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  IN  CONGRESS  AS 
SEMBLED. 

WHEN,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for 
one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected 
them  with  another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth, 
the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of 
nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  man 
kind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them 
to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident : — That  all  men  are  created 
equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalien- 
able  rights  ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness.  That,  to  secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted 
among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  gov 
erned  ;  that,  whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive 
of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it, 
and  to  institute  a  new  government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such 
principles,  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall 
seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  in 
deed,  will  dictate, 'that  governments  long  established  should  not  be 
changed  for  light  and  transient  causes  ;  and  accordingly  all  experi 
ence  hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer  while 
evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms 
to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses 
and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a  de 
sign  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is 
their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards 
for  their  future  security.  Such  has  been  the  'patient  sufferance  of 
these  colonies ;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains 
them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  government.  The  history  of 
the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries 
and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an 


532  APPENDIX  I 

absolute  tyranny  over  these  states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  sub 
mitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  neces 
sary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and 
pressing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his 
assent  should  be  obtained  ;  and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly 
neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large 
districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of 
representation  in  the  legislature — a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and 
formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  un 
comfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depositor)-  of  their  public  records, 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his 
measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing, 
with  manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause 
others  to  be  elected,  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of 
annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise  ; 
the  State  remaining,  in  the  mean  time,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of 
invasions  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States  ;  for 
that  purpose  obstructing  the  laws  for  the  naturalization  of  foreign 
ers  ;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither, 
and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his 
assent  to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure 
of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms 
of  officers  to  harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  with 
out  the  consent  of  our  Legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  supe 
rior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  for 
eign  to  our  constitutions,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ;  giving 
his  assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us  ; 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any 
murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these 
States  ; 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world  ; 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent  ; 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury  ; 


DECLARATION   OF  INDEPENDENCE  533 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pretended  of 
fences  ; 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring 
province,  establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarg 
ing  its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  in 
strument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies  ; 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws, 
and  altering,  fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments  ; 

For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves 
invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his 
protection,  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns, 
and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries 
to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny,  already 
begun  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled 
in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civi 
lized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high 
seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners 
of  their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrection  among  us,  and  has  endeav 
ored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  In 
dian  savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished 
destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress 
in  the  most  humble  terms  ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  an 
swered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince  whose  character  is  thus 
marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the 
ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  our  attentions  to  our  British  breth 
ren.  We  have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their 
legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We 
have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  set 
tlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  mag 
nanimity  ;  and  we  have  conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common 
kindred,  to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  inter 
rupt  our  connections  and  correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been 
deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity.  We  must,  there 
fore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  separation, 
and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in 
peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  Amer 
ica,  in  General  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge 
of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and 
by  the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies  solemnly  pub- 


534 


APPENDIX  I 


lish  and  declare,  That  these  united  colonies,  are,  and  of  right  ought 
to  be,  free  and  independent  states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  be 
tween  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be, 
totally  dissolved  ;  and  that,  as  free  and  independent  states,  they  have 
full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish 
commerce,  and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent 
states  may  of  right  do.  And,  for  the  support  of  this  declaration, 
with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we 
mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our 
sacred  honor. 

The  foregoing  Declaration  was,  by  order  of  Congress,  engrossed, 
and  signed  by  the  following  members  : — 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS    BAY 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE   ISLAND. 
Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

NEW   YORK. 
William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


JOHN    HANCOCK. 

NEW    JERSEY. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

Caesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca, 
Thomas  Stone, 


Charles  Carroll,  of  Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 
George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 
William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 
Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


Resolved,  That  copies  of  the  Declaration  be  sent  to  the  several 
assemblies,  conventions,  and  committees,  or  councils  of  safety,  and 
to  the  several  commanding  officers  of  the  continental  troops  ;  that  it 
be  proclaimed  in  each  of  the  United  States,  and  at  the  head  of  the 
army. 


APPENDIX   II 
ARTICLES   OF   CONFEDERATION 

ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION  AND  PERPETUAL  UNION 
BETWEEN  THE  STATES  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  MAS 
SACHUSETTS  BAY,  RHODE  ISLAND  AND  PROVI 
DENCE  PLANTATIONS,  CONNECTICUT,  NEW  YORK, 
NEW  JERSEY,  PENNSYLVANIA,  DELAWARE,  MARY 
LAND,  VIRGINIA,  NORTH  CAROLINA,  SOUTH  CARO 
LINA,  AND  GEORGIA. 

ARTICLE  I. — The  style  of  this  Confederacy  shall  be,  "The  United 
States  of  America." 

ARTICLE  II. — Each  State  retains  its  sovereignty,  freedom,  and 
independence,  and  every  power,  jurisdiction,  and  right,  which  is  not 
by  this  Confederation  expressly  delegated  to  the  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled. 

ARTICLE  III. — The  said  States  hereby  severally  enter  into  a  firm 
league  of  friendship  with  each  other,  for  their  common  defence,  the 
security  of  their  liberties,  and  their  mutual  and  general  welfare, 
binding  themselves  to  assist  each  other  against  all  force  offered  to 
or  attacks  made  upon  them,  or  any  of  them,  on  account  of  religion, 
sovereignty,  trade,  or  any  other  pretence  whatever. 

ARTICLE  IV. — The  better  to  secure  and  perpetuate  mutual  friend 
ship  and  intercourse  among  the  people  of  the  different  States  in  this 
Union,  the  free  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  States,  paupers,  vaga 
bonds,  and  fugitives  from  justice  excepted,  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  free  citizens  in  the  several  States  ;  and 
the  people  of  each  State  shall  have  free  ingress  and  regress  to  and 
from  any  other  State,  and  shall  enjoy  therein  all  the  privileges  of 
trade  and  commerce  subject  to  the  same  duties,  impositions,  and  re 
strictions  as  the  inhabitants  thereof  respectively  ;  provided  that  such 
restrictions  shall  not  extend  so  far  as  to  prevent  the  removal  of 
property  imported  into  any  State  to  any  other  State  of  which  the 
owner  is  an  inhabitant ;  provided  also,  that  no  imposition,  duties, 
or  restriction  shall  be  laid  by  any  State  on  the  property  of  the 
United  States  or  either  of  them.  If  any  person  guilty  of,  or  charged 
with,  treason,  felony,  or  other  high  misdemeanor  in  any  State  shall 

535 


S36  APPENDIX  II 

flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in  any  of  the  United  States,  he  shall, 
upon  demand  of  the  governor  or  executive  power  of  the  State  from 
which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up  and  removed  to  the  State  having 
jurisdiction  of  his  offence.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in 
each  of  these  States  to  the  records,  acts,  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  the  courts  and  magistrates  of  every  other  State. 

ARTICLE  V. — For  the  more  convenient  management  of  the  gen 
eral  interests  of  the  United  States,  delegates  shall  be  annually  ap 
pointed  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  of  each  State  shall  direct, 
to  meet  in  Congress  on  the  first  Monday  in  November,  in  every 
year,  with  a  power  reserved  to  each  State  to  recall  its  delegates,  or 
any  of  them,  at  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  send  others  in  their 
stead  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  No  State  shall  be  represented 
in  Congress  by  less  than  two,  nor  by  more  than  seven  members  ; 
and  no  person  shall  be  capable  of  being  a  delegate  for  more  than 
three  years  in  any  term  of  six  years  ;  nor  shall  any  person,  being  a 
delegate,  be  capable  of  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States 
for  which  he,  or  another  for  his  benefit,  receives  any  salary,  fees,  or 
emolument  of  any  kind.  Each  State  shall  maintain  its  own  dele 
gates  in  any  meeting  of  the  States  and  while  they  act  as  members 
of  the  Committee  of  the  States.  In  determining  questions  in  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  each  State  shall  have  one 
vote.  Freedom  of  speech  and  debate  in  Congress  shall  not  be  im 
peached  or  questioned  in  any  court  or  place  out  of  Congress  ;  and 
the  members  of  Congress  shall  be  protected  in  their  persons  from 
arrest  and  imprisonment  during  the  time  of  their  going  to.  and  from, 
and  attendance  on,  Congress,  except  for  treason,  felony,  or  breach 
of  the  peace. 

ARTICLE  VI. — No  State,  without  the  consent  of  the  United  States, 
in  Congress  assembled,  shall  send  any  embassy  to,  or  receive  any 
embassy  from,  or  enter  into  any  conference,  agreement,  alliance,  or 
treaty  with  any  king,  prince,  or  state  ;  nor  shall  any  person  holding 
any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them, 
accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind  what 
ever  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state  ;  nor  shall  the  United 
States,  in  Congress  assembled,  or  any  of  them,  grant  any  title  of 
nobility. 

No  two  or  more  States  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  confederation, 
or  alliance  whatever  between  them,  without  the  consent  of  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  specifying  accurately  the 
purposes  for  which  the  same  is  to  be  entered  into,  and  how  long  it 
shall  continue. 

No  State  shall  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  which  may  interfere  with 
any  stipulations  in  treaties  entered  into  by  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled,  with  any  king,  prince,  or  state,  in  pursuance 
of  any  treaties  already  proposed  by  Congress  to  the  courts  of  France 
and  Spain. 


ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION  537 

No  vessels  of  war  shall  be  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  by  any  State, 
except  such  number  only  as  shall  be  deemed  necessary  by  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  for  the  defence  of  such  State 
or  its  trade,  nor  shall  any  body  of  forces  be  kept  up  by  any  State  in 
time  of  peace,  except  such  number  only  as,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  be  deemed  requisite  to 
garrison  the  forts  necessary  for  the  defence  of  such  State  ;  but  every 
State  shall  always  keep  up  a  well-regulated  and  disciplined  militia, 
sufficiently  armed  and  accoutred,  and  shall  provide  and  constantly 
have  ready  for  use  in  public  stores  a  due  number  of  field-pieces  and 
tents,  and  a  proper  quantity  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  camp  equipage. 

No  State  shall  engage  in  any  war  without  the  consent  of  the 
United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such  State  be  actually 
invaded  by  enemies,  or  shall  have  received  certain  advice  of  a 
resolution  being  formed  by  some  nation  of  Indians  to  invade  such 
State,  and  the  danger  is  so  imminent  as  not  to  admit  of  a  delay  till 
the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  can  be  consulted  ;  nor 
shall  any  State  grant  commissions  to  any  ships  or  vessels  of  war,  nor 
letters  of  marque  or  reprisal,  except  it  be  after  a  declaration  of  war 
by  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  and  then  only  against 
the  kingdom  or  state,  and  the  subjects  thereof,  against  which  war 
has  been  so  declared,  and  under  such  regulations  as  shall  be  estab 
lished  by  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such 
State  be  infested  by  pirates,  in  which  case  vessels  of  war  may  be 
fitted  out  for  that  occasion,  and  kept  so  long  as  the  danger  shall 
continue,  or  until  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
determine  otherwise. 

ARTICLE  VII. — When  land  forces  are  raised  by  any  State  for  the 
common  defence,  all  officers  of  or  under  the  rank  of  Colonel  shall 
be  appointed  by  the  Legislature  of  each  State  respectively  by  whom 
such  forces  shall  be  raised,  or  in  such  manner  as  such  State  shall 
direct,  and  all  vacancies  shall  be  filled  up  by  the  State  wrhich  first 
made  the  appointment. 

ARTICLE  VIII. — All  charges  of  war,  and  all  other  expenses  that 
shall  be  incurred  for  the  common  defence  or  general  welfare,  and 
allowed  by  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  be  de 
frayed  out  of  a  common  treasury,  which  shall  be  supplied  by  the 
several  States  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  land  within  each  State, 
granted  to  or  surveyed  for,  any  person,  as  such  land  and  the  build 
ings  and  improvements  thereon  shall  be  estimated,  according  to 
such  mode  as  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall,  from 
time  to  time,  direct  and  appoint.  The  taxes  for  paying  that  propor 
tion  shall  be  laid  and  levied  by  the  authority  and  direction  of  the 
Legislatures  of  the  several  States  within  the  time  agreed  upon  by 
the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled. 

ARTICLE  IX. — The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
have  the  sole  and  exclusive  right  and  power  of  determining  on  peace 


538  APPENDIX  II 

and  war,  except  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  the  sixth  Article  ;  of  send 
ing  and  receiving  ambassadors  ;  entering  into  treaties  and  alliances, 
provided  that  no  treaty  of  commerce  shall  be  made,  whereby  the 
legislative  power  of  the  respective  States  shall  be  restrained  from 
imposing  such  imposts  and  duties  on  foreigners  as  their  own  people 
are  subjected  to,  or  irom  prohibiting  the  exportation  or  importation 
of  any  species  of  goods  or  commodities  whatever  ;  of  establishing 
rules  for  deciding,  in  all  cases,  what  captures  on  land  and  water 
shall  be  legal,  and  in  what  manner  prizes  taken  by  land  or  naval 
forces  in  the  service  of  the  United  States  shall  be  divided  or  appro 
priated  ;  of  granting  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  in  times  of 
peace  ;  appointing  courts  for  the  trial  of  piracies  and  felonies  com 
mitted  on  the  high  seas  ;  and  establishing  courts  for  receiving  and 
determining  finally  appeals  in  all  cases  of  captures  ;  provided  that 
no  member  of  Congress  shall  be  appointed  a  judge  of  any  of  the 
said  courts. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  also  be  the  last 
resort  on  appeal  in  all  disputes  and  differences  now  subsisting,  or 
that  hereafter  may  arise  between  two  or  more  States  concerning 
boundary,  jurisdiction,  or  any  other  cause  whatever ;  which  au 
thority  shall  always  be  exercised  in  the  manner  following :  When 
ever  the  legislative  or  executive  authority,  or  lawful  agent  of  any 
State  in  controversy  with  another,  shall  present  a  petition  to  Con 
gress,  stating  the  matter  in  question,  and  praying  for  a  hearing, 
notice  thereof  shall  be  given  by  order  of  Congress  to  the  legislative 
or  executive  authority  of  the  other  State  in  controversy,  and  a  day 
assigned  for  the  appearance  of  the  parties  by  their  lawful  agents, 
who  shall  then  be  directed  to  appoint,  by  joint  consent,  commis 
sioners  or  judges  to  constitute  a  court  for  hearing  and  determining 
the  matter  in  question  ;  but  if  they  cannot  agree,  Congress  shall 
name  three  persons  out  of  each  of  the  United  States,  and  from  the 
list  of  such  persons  each  party  shall  alternately  strike  out  one,  the 
petitioners  beginning,  until  the  number  shall  be  reduced  to  thirteen  ; 
and  from  that  number  not  less  than  seven  nor  more  than  nine 
names,  as  Congress  shall  direct,  shall,  in  the  presence  of  Congress, 
be  drawn  out  by  lot ;  and  the  persons  whose  names  shall  be  so 
drawn,  or  any  five  of  them,  shall  be  commissioners  or  judges,  to 
hear  and  finally  determine  the  controversy,  so  always  as  a  major 
part  of  the  judges  who  shall  hear  the  cause  shall  agree  in  the  deter 
mination  ;  and  if  either  party  shall  neglect  to  attend  at  the  day  ap 
pointed,  without  showing  reasons  which  Congress  shall  judge  suffi 
cient,  or  being  present,  shall  refuse  to  strike,  the  Congress  shall 
proceed  to  nominate  three  persons  out  of  each  State,  and  the  secre 
tary  of  Congress  shall  strike  in  behalf  of  such  party  absent  or 
refusing  ;  and  the  judgment  and  sentence  of  the  court,  to  be  ap 
pointed  in  the  manner  before  prescribed,  shall  be  final  and  con 
clusive  ;  and  if  any  of  the  parties  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  the 


ARTICLES   OF  CONFEDERATION  539 

authority  of  such  court,  or  to  appear  or  defend  their  claim  or  cause, 
the  court  shall  nevertheless  proceed  to  pronounce  sentence  or  judg 
ment,  which  shall  in  like  manner  be  final  and  decisive  ;  the  judg 
ment  or  sentence  and  other  proceedings  being  in  either  case  trans 
mitted  to  Congress,  and  lodged  among  the  acts  of  Congress  for  the 
security  of  the  parties  concerned  ;  provided,  that  every  commissioner, 
before  he  sits  in  judgment,  shall  take  an  oath,  to  be  administered 
by  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  or  superior  court  of  the  State 
where  the  cause  shall  be  tried,  "  well  and  truly  to  hear  and  deter 
mine  the  matter  in  question,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judgment, 
without  favor,  affection,  or  hope  of  reward."  Provided,  also,  that 
no  State  shall  be  deprived  of  territory  for  the  benefit  of  the  United 
States. 

All  controversies  concerning  the  private  right  of  soil  claimed 
under  different  grants  of  two  or  more  States,  whose  jurisdictions, 
as  they  may  respect  such  lands  and  the  State  which  passed  such 
grants  are  adjusted,  the  said  grants  or  either  of  them  being  at  the 
same  time  claimed  to.  have  originated  antecedent  to  such  settlement 
of  jurisdiction,  shall,  on  the  petition  of  either  party  to  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  be  finally  determined,  as  near  as  may  be,  in 
the  same  manner  as  is  before  prescribed  for  deciding  disputes  re 
specting  territorial  jurisdiction  between  different  States. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  also  have  the 
sole  and  conclusive  right  and  power  of  regulating  the  alloy  and 
value  of  coin  struck  by  their  own  authority,  or  by  that  of  the  re 
spective  States ;  fixing  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures 
throughout  the  United  States  ;  regulating  the  trade  and  managing 
all  affairs  \vith  the  Indians,  not  members  of  any  of  the  States  ;  pro 
vided  that  the  legislative  right  of  any  State,  within  its  own  limits, 
be  not  infringed  or  violated  ;  establishing  and  regulating  post  offices 
from  .one  State  to  another,  throughout  all  the  United  States,  and 
exacting  such  postage  on  the  papers  passing  through  the  same  as 
may  be  requisite  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  said  office  ;  appoint 
ing  all  officers  of  the  land  forces  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  excepting  regimental  officers  ;  appointing  all  the  officers  of 
the  naval  forces,  and  commissioning  all  officers  whatever  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States  ;  making  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  said  land  and  naval  forces,  and  directing  their 
operations. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  have  authority 
to  appoint  a  committee,  to  sit  in  the  recess  of  Congress,  to  be  de 
nominated,  "  A  Committee  of  the  States,"  and  to  consist  of  one 
delegate  from  each  State,  and  to  appoint  such  other  committees  and 
civil  officers  as  may  be  necessary  for  managing  the  general  affairs  of 
the  United  States  under  their  direction  ;  to  appoint  one  of  their 
number  to  preside  ;  provided  that  no  person  be  allowed  to  serve  in 
the  office  of  president  more  than  one  year  in  any  term  of  three  years  ; 


540  APPENDIX  II 

to  ascertain  the  necessary  sums  of  money  to  be  raised  for  the  service 
of  the  United  States,  and  to  appropriate  and  apply  the  same  for  de 
fraying  the  public  expenses  ;  to  borrow  money  or  emit  bills  on  the 
credit  of  the  United  States,  transmitting  every  half  year  to  the 
respective  States  an  account  of  the  sums  of  money  so  borrowed  or 
emitted  ;  to  build  and  equip  a  navy  ;  to  agree  upon  the  number  ot 
land  forces,  and  to  make  requisitions  from  each  State  for  its  quota, 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  white  inhabitants  in  such  State, 
which  requisition  shall  be  binding  ;  and  thereupon  the  Legislature 
of  each  State  shall  appoint  the  regimental  officers,  raise  the  men, 
and  clothe,  arm,  and  equip  them  in  a  soldier-like  manner,  at  the 
expense  ot  the  United  States  ;  and  the  officers  and  men  so  clothed, 
armed,  and  equipped,  shall  march  to  the  place  appointed,  and 
within  the  time  agreed  on  by  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assem 
bled  ;  but  if  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall,  on 
consideration  of  circumstances,  judge  proper  that  any  State  should 
not  raise  men,  or  should  raise  a  smaller  number  than  \ts  quota,  and 
that  any  other  State  should  raise  a  greater  number  of  men  than  the 
quota  thereof,  such  extra  number  shall  be  raised,  officered,  clothed, 
armed,  and  equipped  in  the  same  manner  as  the  quota  of  such 
State,  unless  the  Legislature  of  such  State  shall  judge  that  such 
extra  number  can  not  be  safely  spared  out  of  the  same,  in  which 
case  they  shall  raise,  officer,  clothe,  arm,  and  equip  as  many  of  such 
extra  number  as  they  judge  can  be  safely  spared,  and  the  officers 
and  men  so  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped  shall  march  to  the  place 
appointed,  and  within  the  time  agreed  on  by  the  United  States,  in 
Congress  assembled. 

The  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  shall  never  engage  in 
war,  nor  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  in  time  of  peace,  nor 
enter  into  any  treaties  or  alliances,  nor  coin  money,  nor  regulate  the 
value  thereof,  nor  ascertain  the  sums  and  expenses  necessary  for  the 
defense  and  welfare  of  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them,  nor  emit 
bills,  nor  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States,  nor  ap 
propriate  money,  nor  agree  upon  the  number  of  vessels  of  war  to 
be  built  or  purchased,  or  the  number  of  land  or  sea  forces  to  be 
raised,  nor  appoint  a  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  or  navy, 
unless  nine  States  assent  to  the  same,  nor  shall  a  question  on  any 
other  point,  except  for  adjourning  from  day  to  day,  be  determined, 
unless  by  the  votes  of  a  majority  of  the  United  States,  in  Congress 
assembled. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  shall  have  power  to  adjourn 
to  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  any  place  within  the  United 
States,  so  that  no  period  of  adjournment  be  for  a  longer  duration 
than  the  space  of  six  months,  and  shall  publish  the  journal  of  their 
proceedings  monthly,  except  such  parts  thereof  relating  to  treaties, 
alliances,  or  military  operations  as  in  their  judgment  require 
secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  delegates  of  each  State,  on 


ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION  54* 

any  question,  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  when  it  is  desired  by 
any  delegate  ;  and  the  delegates  of  a  State,  or  any  of  them,  at  his 
or  their  request,  shall  be  furnished  with  a  transcript  of  the  said 
journal,  except  such  parts  as  are  above  excepted,  to  lay  before  the 
Legislatures  of  the  several  States. 

ARTICLE  X. — The  Committee  of  the  States,  or  any  nine  of  them, 
shall  be  authorized  to  execute,  in  the  recess  of  Congress,  such  of 
the  powers  of  Congress  as  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assem 
bled,  by  the  consent  of  nine  States,  shall,  from  time  to  time,  think 
expedient  to  vest  them  with  ;  provided  that  no  power  be  delegated 
to  the  said  Committee,  for  the  exercise  of  which,  by  the  Articles  of 
Confederation,  the  voice  of  nine  States  in  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  as  assembled  is  requisite. 

ARTICLE  XI. — Canada,  acceding  to  this  Confederation,  and  join 
ing  in  the  measures  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  admitted  into, 
and  entitled  to,  all  the  advantages  of  this  Union  ;  but  no  other 
colony  shall  be  admitted  into  the  same,  unless  such  admission  be 
agreed  to  by  nine  States. 

ARTICLE  XII. — All  bills  of  credit  emitted,  moneys  borrowed,  and 
debts  contracted  by  or  under  the  authority  of  Congress,  before  the 
assembling  of  the  United  States,  in  pursuance  of  the  present  Con 
federation,  shall  be  deemed  and  considered  as  a  charge  against 
the  United  States,  for  payment  and  satisfaction  whereof  the 
said  United  States  and  the  public  faith  are  hereby  solemnly 
pledged. 

ARTICLE  XIII. — Every  State  shall  abide  by  the  determination  of 
the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  on  all  questions  which  by 
this  Confederation  are  submitted  to  them.  And  the  Articles  of 
this  Confederation  shall  be  inviolably  observed  by  every  State,  and 
the  Union  shall  be  perpetual  ;  nor  shall  any  alteration  at  any  time 
hereafter  be  made  in  any  of  them,  unless  such  alteration  be  agreed 
to  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  be  afterwards  confirmed 
by  the  Legislatures  of  every  State. 

AND  WHEREAS  it  hath  pleased  the  great  Governor  of  the  world 
to  incline  the  hearts  of  the  Legislatures  we  respectively  represent 
in  Congress  to  approve  of,  and  to  authorize  us  to  ratify,  the  said 
Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual  Union,  know  ye,  that  we, 
the  undersigned  delegates,  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  authority  to 
us  given  for  that  purpose,  do,  by  these  presents,  in  the  name  and 
in  behalf  of  our  respective  constituents,  fully  and  entirely  ratify  and 
confirm  each  and.  every  of  the  said  Articles  of  Confederation  and 
perpetual  Union,  and  all  and  singular  the  matters  and  things  con 
tained.  And  we  do  further  solemnly  plight  and  engage  the  faith 
of  our  respective  constituents,  that  they  shall  abide  by  the  determi 
nations  of  the  United  States,  in  Congress  assembled,  on  all  ques 
tions  which  by  the  said  Confederation  are  submitted  to  them  ;  and 
that  the  Articles  thereof  shall  be  inviolably  observed  by  the  States 


542  APPENDIX  II 

we  respectively  represent,  and  that  the  Union  shall  be  perpetual. 
In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  in  Congress. 
Done  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  the  ninth  day  of 
July,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1778,  and  in  the  third  year  of  the 
Independence  of  America. 


APPENDIX   III 

CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA 
PREAMBLE 

WE,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure 
the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  CONSTITUTION  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE    I. 

SECTION  I.      i.  All  legislative   powers   herein  granted    shall    be 
vested  in  a  Congress  1  of  the  United  States,  which  shall    Legislative 
consist  of  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives.  powers. 

SEC.  II.      i.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
members  chosen   every  second  year,  by  the  people  of  House  of 
the  several  states  ;  and  the  electors  in  each  state  shall   representa- 
have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most   tlves< 
numerous  branch  of  the  state  legislature. 

2.  No  person   shall  be   a  representative  who  shall  not  have  at 
tained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven     Quaiifications 
years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,    of  representa- 
when  elected „  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  state  in  which   tlves- 

he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  states  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  accord 
ing  to  their  respective  numbers,2  which  shall  be  deter-   Apportionment 
mined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,    of  representa- 
including   those   bound   to  service  for  a  term  of  years,    tlves- 

and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.3 
The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after 
the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within 
every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall 

1  The  body  of  senators  and  representatives  for  each  term  of  two  years  for  which  repre 
sentatives  are  chosen  is  called  one  Congress.     Each  Congress  expires  at  noon  of  the  4th  of 
March  next  succeeding  the  beginning  of  its  second  regular  session,  when  a  new  Congress 
begins . 

2  The  apportionment  under  the   census   of  1890  is  one  representative  to  every  173,901 
persons. 

3  This  refers  to  slaves,  and  is  no  longer  in  force  (see  Amendment  XIII.). 

543 


544  APPENDIX  111 

by  law  direct.  The  number  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  state  shall  have  at  least  one 
representative  ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State 
of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three  ;  Massachusetts, 
eight  ;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  one  ;  Connecticut, 
five  ;  New  York,  six  ;  New  Jersey,  four  ;  Pennsylvania,  eight  ;  Del 
aware,  one  ;  Maryland,  six  ;  Virginia,  ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five  ; 
South  Carolina,  five  ;  and  Georgia,  three. 

.  4.  When   vacancies    happen    in    the    representation 

from  any  state,  the  executive  authority  thereof  shall 
issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

Officers,  how  5-   The   house  of  representatives   shall   choose    their 

appointed.  speaker  and  other  officers,1  and  shall  have  the  sole 
power  of  impeachment. 

SEC.  III.     i.  The  senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of 
two    senators    from    each    state,  chosen    by  the    legis 
lature  thereof,  for  six  years  ;  and    each   senator  shall 
have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 

the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided,  as  equally  as 
may  be»  mto  three  classes.     The  seats  of  the  senators 
of  the   first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of 
the  second  year  ;  of  the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth 
year  ;  and  of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth   year,  so 
that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year  ;  and  if  vacancies 
happen,  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legis 
lature  of  any  state,  the    executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  ap 
pointments  until  the    next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  \vhich  shall 
then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
Qualifications      the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of 
of  senators.        the  United  States  ;  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be 
an  inhabitant  of  that  state  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

President  of  4-  The  vice-president  of  the  United  States  shall  be 

the  senate.  president  of  the  senate  ;  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless 
they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The    senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,7  and  also  a  presi 
dent  pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  vice-president,  or  when  h€ 
shall  exercise  the  office  of  president  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 

When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or 
Senate  a  court  affirmation.  When  the  president  of  the  United  States 
p0eachmentsim  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall  preside  ;  and  no  person 

shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds 
of  the  members  present. 

1  Clerk,    sergeant-at-arms,  door-keeper,  postmaster  and   others.     The    Speaker  is  the 
presiding  officer. 
8  Secretary,  sergeant-at-arms,  door-keeper,  postmaster  and  others. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   UNITED  STATES  545 

7.  Judgment,   in  case  of  impeachment,  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold    judgment  in 
and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,    or  profit,    under   caseofcon- 
the    United    States  ;    but    the     party   convicted    shall,    v 
nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment, 
and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SEC.  IV.      i.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  senators  and  representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in    Elections  of 
each  state  by  the  legislature  thereof ;  but  the  Congress    senlrtore'and 
may,  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regula-    of  represen- 
tions,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year  ;  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,    Meeting  of 
unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day.  Congress. 

SEC.  V.      i.   Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  re 
turns,  and  qualifications   of  its  own  members  ;  and  a    organization 
majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  busi-    of  Congress. 
ness  ;  but    a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from   day  to   day,  and 
may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in 
such  manner  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house    may  determine  the  rules  of  its  pro-    Ruie  of  pro. 
ceedings,  punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,    ceedmg. 
and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as    journai  Of 
may,  in  their  judgment,  require  secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas    Congress. 
and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house,  on  any  question,  shall,  at 
the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither    house,   during   the  session   of  Congress, 

shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more    ^JJJJJJJJJ1* 
than   three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place   than  that  in 
\vhich  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SEC.  VI.     i.  The   senators    and    representatives   shall   receive  a 
compensation l  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by    Pa  .  . 

law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,    leges  of  mem- 
They  shall,    in    all  cases,  except    treason,    felony,  and    bers- 
breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attend 
ance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same  ;    and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either 
house  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.   No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office,  under    pluralit   of 
the   authority  of  the  United  States,  which    shall    have    offices1  p^o- 
been   created,  or  the   emoluments   whereof  shall   have    hibited. 
been  increased,  during  such  time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 

1  The  present  compensation  is  $5,000  a  year,  with  twenty  cents  for  every  mile  of  travel  by 
the  most  usually  travelled  post  route  to  and  from  the  national  capital. 


546  APPENDIX  III 

under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during 

his  continuance  in  office. 

SEC.  VII.  i.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
house  of  representatives  ;  but  the  senate  may  propose 
or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  house  of  representatives 
and  the  senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
How  bills  be-     president  of  the  United  States.     If  he  approve,  he  shall 
come  laws.         sign  it  ;  but   if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his   objec 
tions,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter 
the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it. 
If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to 
pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  writh  the  objections,  to  the  other 
house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved 
by  two  thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.     But,  in  all  such 
cases,  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays, 
and   the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall 
be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.     If  any  bill 
shall  not  be  returned  by  the  president  within  ten  days  (Sundays  ex- 
cepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be 
a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by 
their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a 
law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence  of 

the  senate  and  house  of  representatives  may  be  neces- 
vetcTpowers0       sary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjournment),  shall  be  pre- 
of  the  presi-       sentecl  to  the  president  of  the  United  States  ;  and  be 
fore   the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall   be  approved  by 
him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by   two  thirds 
of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  according  to  the  rules 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 
SEC.  VIII.  The  Congress  shall  have  power— 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and   excises,    to   pay 

the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  gen- 
cral  welfare  of  the  United  States  ;  but   all  duties,    im 
posts,   and   excises   shall    be    uniform    throughout    the 
United  States : 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  : 

3.  To  regulate  commerce   with   foreign    nations,  and  among  the 
several  states,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes  : 

4.  To   establish   a    uniform   rule   of  naturalization,   and   uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  : 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures  : 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities 
and  current  coin  of  the  United  States  : 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads  : 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  547 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  secur 
ing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right 
to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries  : 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  court : 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations  : 

11.  To  declare   war,   grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  : 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies  ;  but  no  appropriation  of  money 
to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years  : 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  : 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces  : 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of 
the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions  : 

1 6.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  mili 
tia,   and  for  governing  such   part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  states  respectively 
the  appointment  of  the  officers,   and  the   authority  of  training  the 
militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress  : 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in   all  cases  whatsoever, 
over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  ces 
sion  of  particular  states,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States  ; 1  and  to  exercise  like 
authority  over  all  places  purchased,  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature 
of  the  state  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts, 
magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings  :  and 

1 8.  To   make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

SEC.  IX.  i.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any 
of  the  states  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit, 
shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  J 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight ;  but  a  tax 
or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dol 
lars  for  each  person.2 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall    Habeas  cor- 
not  be  suspended,  unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or   pus. 
invasion,  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law,  shall  be 
passed.  Attainder" 

4.  No   capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall   be   laid, 
unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  here-    ] 
inbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

1  The  District  of  Columbia. 

2  This  has  reference  to  the  foreign  slave  trade. 


548  APPENDIX  III 

5.   No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported 
Regulations        from  any  state. 

dSs.1118  6.   No  preference  shall  be  given,  by  any  regulation  of 

commerce  or  revenue,  to  the  ports  of  one  state  over 
those  of  another  ;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  state  be 
obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence 

of  appropriations  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  state- 
d!awnys'  h°W      ment  and  account  of  the   receipts  and  expenditures  ot 
all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States,  and 
Titles  of  no    Person   holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under 
nobility  them  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept 

of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind 
whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

SEC.  X.  i.  No  state  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  con- 
Powers  of  federation  ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  ;  coin 

states  money  ;  emit  bills  of  credit  ;  make  anything  but  gold 

and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  ;  pass  any 
bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of 
contracts  ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso 
lutely  necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws  ;  and  the  net  pro 
duce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or  exports, 
shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  and  all  such 
laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 
No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  ton 
nage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  state,  or  with  a  foreign  power, 
or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such  imminent  dan 
ger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


ARTICLE    II. 

SECTION  I.  i.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  Presi- 
Executive  ^ent  °^  tne  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold 
power,  in  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  .together 

*hom  vested.  ^fa  fag  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected  as  follows  : 

2.   Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such   manner  as  the    legislature 

thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors  equal  to  the 

whole  number  of  senators  and  representatives  to  which 

the  state  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  ;  but  no  senator,  or  repre 

sentative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the 

United  States  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  54*9 

[3.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one,  at  least,  shall  not 
be   an   inhabitant  of  the  same   state  with  themselves.    eie°"j£ings  °f 
And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for, 
and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and   transmit  sealed   to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  senate.     The  presi 
dent  of  the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  senate  and  house  of 
representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and   the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted.     The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be 
the  president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
electors  appointed  ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who    and  of  house 
have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,    of  represen- 
then   the    house    of  representatives    shall   immediately    tatlves 
choose,  by  ballot,  one  of  them  for  president ;  and  if  no  person  have 
a  majority,  then,  from  the  five   highest  on  the  list,  the  said  house 
shall,  in  like  manner,  choose  the  president.     But,  in  choosing  the 
president,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from 
each  state  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist 
of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  states  and  a  major 
ity  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.     In  every  case, 
after  the   choice  of  the   president,  the   person    having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  vice-president.     But,  if 
there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  senate 
shall  choose  from  them,  by  ballot,  the  vice-president.]  l 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  Time  of 
the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  choosing 
votes  ;  which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  electors- 
United  States.2 

S*  5.   No  person,  except  a  natural   born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  consti-    o    ,.fi 
tution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  president ;  neither   tkms'of  the 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not   Presldent- 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years 
a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.   In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  president  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers    Res      . 
and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on    case°of  his 
the  vice-president ;  and  the  Congress  may,  by  law,  pro-    disability. 
vide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of 
the  president  and  vice-president,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then 
act  as  president  ;  and  such  officer  shall   act  accordingly,  until  the 
disability  be  removed,  or  a  president  shall  be  elected. 

1  This  clause,  within  brackets,  has  been  superseded  by  the  i2th  Amendment. 

2  The  electors  are  chosen  on  the  Tuesday  next  after  the  first  Monday  in  November  pre 
ceding  the  expiration  of  a  presidential  term,  and  vote  for  president  and  vice-president  on  the 
second  Monday  of  the  January  following.     The  votes  are  counted  and  declared  in  Congress 
the  second  Wednesday  of  the  following  February. 


55°  APPENDIX  III 

7.  The  president  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 

compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor 
pSenl.'11  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have 

been  elected  ;  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that 
period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of 
them.1 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation  : — 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the 
best  of  my  ability,    preserve,    protect,   and  defend  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SEC.  II.      i.  The   president  shall    be    commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  sev 
eral  states,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
president' th        United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing, 
of  the  principal  officer,  in  each  of  the  executive  depart 
ments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offi 
cers  ;  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for 
offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the   senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided   two  thirds  of  the   senators 

present  concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and 
trea^ieTap-  w^  tne  a^v^ce  anc^  consent  of  the  senate  shall  appoint, 
point  am-  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges 

bassadors  of  tne    SUpreme   court,   and   all   other    officers    of  the 

judges,  cic.  T  T     •        i     r-<  i  •  i 

United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law.  But 
the  Congress  may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the  president  alone,  in  the  courts  of 
law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The   president  shall  have   power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that 
May  fill  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  senate,  by  grant- 
vacancies,           ing  commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their 
next  session. 

SEC.  III.  i.  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress 
information  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  t^  cneir  con 
sideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expecli- 
May  convene  ent  I  *  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene 
Congress.  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and,  in  case  of  disagree 

ment  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper  ;  he  shall 

1  The  salary  of  the  president  was  $25,000  a  year  until  1872,  when  it  was  increased  to 
$50,000.  That  of  the  vice-president  is  $8,000  a  year. 

1  The  president  does  this  in  messages  at  the  opening  of  each  session.  Washington  and 
John  Adams  read  their  messages  in  person  to  both  houses  of  Congress.  Jefferson  intro 
duced  the  present  practice  of  sending  to  the  two  houses  a  written  message  by  his  private 
secretary. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  55 x 

receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed  ;  and  shall  commission  all  the 
officers  of  the  United  States. 

SEC.  IV.      i.   The  president,  vice-president,  and  all  civil  officers  oi 
the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  im-    Howofficers 
peachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or    may  be  re- 
other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE    III. 

SECTION  I.      i.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested    in    one    Supreme    Court,    and   in   such  inferior    judicial 
courts  as  the  Congress  may,  from  time  to  time,  ordain    power,  how 
and   establish.     The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and    vested, 
inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior  ;  and 
shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

SEC.  II.      i.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,    and    treaties   made,   or  which    shall    be  made,    To  what 
under  their  authority  ;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassa-    cases  it 
dors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls  ;  to  all  cases    extends- 
of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  controversies  to  which 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  party  ;  to  controversies  between  two  or 
more  states  ;  between  a  state  and  citizens  of  another  state  \l  between 
citizens  of  different  states  ;  between  citizens  of  the  same  state  claim 
ing  lands  under  grants  of  different  states  ;  and  between  a  state,  or 
the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  state  shall  be  a  party,  the    jurisdiction 
supreme  court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  '  In  all    of  the  su-     ^^ 
the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  suprern^  court    Preme  court- 
shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such 
exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations,  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
be  by  jury,  and   such  trial  shall  be   held   in   the  state    Rule^ 
where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed  ;  but    respecting^ 
when  not  committed  within  any  state,  the  trial  shall  be    tnals- 

at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

SEC.  III.      i.  Treason  against  the  United  States. shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their 
enemies,   giving  them    aid    and    comfort.     No   person 
shall  be  convicted  of  treason,  unless  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open 
court. 

1  See  Amendments,  Art.  XI. 


552  APPENDIX  III 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
How  treason  ;  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  cor- 

punished.  ruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of 

the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

SECTION  I.  i.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  state 
to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of 
every  other  state.  And  the  Congress  may,  by  general 
laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records, 

and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Privileges  SEC.  II.      i.  The  citizens   of  each  state  shall  be  en- 

of  citizens.          titled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the 

several  states. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  state  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
Executive  crime,  who   shall   flee   from  justice,    and   be   found   in 
requisitions.        another  state,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  author 
ity  of  the  state  from  wrhich  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed 
to  the  state  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime.1 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  state,  under  the  laws 
Law  re  ulatm     tnere°f>  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of 
service  or       "    any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 

service  or  labor  ;  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of 
the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due.'2 

SEC.  III.  i.  New  states  maybe  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
New  states,  tn*s  Union  ;  but  no  new  states  shall  be  formed  or 
how  formed  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  state,  nor 
and  admitted.  any  state  be  forme(j  ty  ^g  junction  of  two  or  more 
states,  or  parts  of  states,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of 
the  states  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of,   and   make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting,  the  territory 
Power  of  or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United  States  ;  and 

nothing  in  this  constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United   States,  or  of  any 
particular  state. 

SEC.  IV.  i.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  state  in 
Republican  tms  Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall 
government  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion  ;  and  on  applica- 
guaranteed.  tion  of  tne  iegjsiature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the 
legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE   V. 

i.  The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem 
it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  constitution  ;  or,  on 

1  See  §  502.  2  See  §§  284,  556. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   UNITED  STATES  553 

the  application  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  states, 
shall    call    a    convention     for    proposing    amendments,    Constitution> 
which,  in  either   case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and    how  to  be 
purposes,  as  part  of  this  constitution,  when  ratified  by    amended- 
the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  states,  or  by  conven 
tions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratifi 
cation  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  ;  provided,  that  no  amend 
ment   which   may  be   made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand   eight 
hundred   and   eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
clauses  in  the  ninth   section  of  the  first  article  ;  and  that  no  state, 
without  its  consent,  shall  be   deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
senate. 

ARTICLE   VI. 

1 .  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into    Validity  of 
before  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  as  valid    debts  recog- 
against  the    United  States  under    this   constitution    as    nized> 
under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  constitution,  and  the   laws  of  the   United  States    which 
shall   be   made   in    pursuance  thereof,  and  all    treaties    gu  reme  law 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  of  the  land 
the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  ;    defined- 

and  the  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in 
the  constitution  or  laws  of  any  state  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  senators   and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  state  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judi 
cial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several 

states,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support    Wh0m're- 
this  constitution  ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  re-    quired,  and 
quired   as  a  qualification  to    any  office  or  public  trust 
under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   VII. 

i.  The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  states 
shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  constitu 
tion  between  the  states  so  ratifying  the  same.1 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  states  present, 
the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independ 
ence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness 
whereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names.2 

GEO.  WASHINGTON, 
Presidt.  and  deputy  from  Virginia. 

1  See  §  286. 

2  The  number  of  delegates  chosen  to  the  convention    was  sixty-five  ;  ten  did  not  attend  ; 
sixteen  declined  to  sign  the  Constitution,  or  left  the  convention  before  it  was  ready  to  be 
signed.     Thirty-nine  signed. 


554 


APPENDIX  HI 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Oilman. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel  Gorham, 
Rufus  King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Wm.  Saml.  Johnson, 
Roger  Sherman. 

NEW    YORK. 

Alexander  Hamilton. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

\Vil.  Livingston, 
David  Brearley, 
Wm.  Paterson, 
Jona.  Dayton. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

B.  Franklin, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
Robt.  Morris, 
Geo:  Clymer, 
Tho:  Fitzsimons, 
Jared  Ingersoll, 
James  Wilson, 
Gouv:  Morris. 

DELAWARE. 

Geo:  Read, 
Gunning      Bedford, 

Jun'r, 

John  Dickinson, 
Richard  Bassett, 
Jaco:  Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James  M'Henry, 
Dan:  of  St.  Thos.  Jeni 
fer, 
Danl.  Carroll. 


VIRGINIA. 


Attest : 


WILLIAM 


John  Blair, 

James  Madison,  Jr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Wm.  Blount, 

Rich'd  Dobbs  Spaight, 

Hu.  Williamson. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

J.  Rutledge, 

Charles      Cotesworth 

Pinckney, 
Charles  Pinckney, 
Pierce  Butler. 

GEORGIA. 

\Villiam  Few, 
Abr.  Baldwin. 
JACKSON,  Secretary. 


AMENDMENTS    TO    THE   CONSTITUTION. 

1  ART.  I.  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establish- 
Freedomin  rnent  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  there- 
religion,  of ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press  ; 
speech,  press.  or  tne  ^^  Qf  the  p^pi^  peaceably  to  assemble  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ART.  II.  A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security 
Militia.  of  a  free  state,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear 

arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ART.  III.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in 
Soldiers  any  house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner  ;  nor  in 

time  of  war  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ART.  IV.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  per- 
Search  sons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable 

warrants.  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated  ;  and  no 

warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ART.  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or 
otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment 

1  The  first  ten  amendments  were  proposed  in  1789,  and  declared  adopted  in  1791. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   UNITED  STATES  555 

of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces, 
or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war    capital 
or  public  danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the    crimes. 
same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb  ;   nor  shall 
be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  a  witness  against  himself; 
nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of 
law  ;  nor  shall   private  property  be   taken   for  public  use,  without 
just  compensation. 

ART.  VI.      In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the 
right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  state 
and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which 
district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,    Trial  by 
and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accu-    jury, 
sation  ;  to   be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have 
compulsory   process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in   his   favor  ;   and  to 
have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

ART.  VII.     In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  contro 
versy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by    suits  at  corn- 
jury   shall   be  preserved  ;  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury    nion  law. 
shall  be  otherwise  re-examined,  in  any  court  of  the  United  States, 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ART.  VIII.     Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor 
excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punish-    Bail)  fines>  etc- 
ments  inflicted. 

ART.  IX.     The  enumeration    in  the  constitution,  of   Reserved 
certain   rights,  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  dis-    rights, 
parage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ART.  X.     The   powers  not  delegated  to  the  United    powers  re- 
States  by  the  constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the    served, 
states,  are  reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

1  ART.  XI.     The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be 
construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  com 
menced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States,    Judical  power 
by  citizens  of  another  state,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of 
any  foreign  state. 

a  ART.  XII.     The    electors   shall   meet  in  their  respective  states, 
and  vote  by  ballot  for  president  and  vice-president,  one  of  whom, 
at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant   of  the  same  state 
with  themselves  ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the    Amendment 
person  voted  for  as  president,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the    Se£?,' respect 
person  voted  for  as  vice-president ;  and  they  shall  make    ing  election  of 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  president,  and    Jfce-preVident. 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  vice-president,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify, 

1  The  eleventh  amendment  was  proposed  in  1794,  and  declared  adopted  in  1798. 
8  The  twelfth  amendment  was  proposed  in  1803,  and  declared  adopted  in  1804. 


556  APPENDIX  HI 

and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  senate  ;  the  president  of 
the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  senate  and  house  of 
representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted  ;  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for 
president  shall  be  the  president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person 
have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  num 
bers,  not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  president, 
the  house  of  representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot, 
the  president.  But,  in  choosing  the  president,  the  votes  shall  be 
taken  by  states,  the  representation  from  each  state  having  one  vote  ; 
a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two  thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  house  of  representatives  shall  not 
choose  a  president,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon 
them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  vice- 
president  shall  act  as  president,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  president.  The  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  as  vice-president,  shall  be  the  vice-presi 
dent,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two 
highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  senate  shall  choose  the  vice-presi 
dent  ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible 
to  the  office  of  president,  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  vice-president 
of  the  United  States. 

1  ART.  XIII.     SEC.  I.   Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary 
servitude,  except  as  a   punishment  for  crime,    whereof 
the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  Uni 
ted  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

SEC.  II.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  ap 
propriate  legislation. 

'-'  ART.  XIV.  SEC.  I.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  state  wherein  they  reside.  No  state  shall 
make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  im 
munities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  ;  nor  shall  any  state  deprive 
any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law, 
nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection 
of  the  laws. 

SEC.  II.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
states  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole 
number  of  persons  in  each  state,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But 

1  The  thirteenth  amendment  was  proposed  and  adopted  in  1865  (§  757). 

2  The  fourteenth  amendment  was  proposed  in  1866,  and  adopted  in  1868  (§  763). 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES  557 

when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for 
president  and  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  representatives  in 
Congress,  the  executive  or  judicial  officers  of  a  state,  or  the  mem 
bers  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhab 
itants  of  such  state,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation 
in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall 
be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citi 
zens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  state. 

SEC.  III.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Con 
gress,  or  elector  of  president  or  vice-president,  or  hold  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  state,  who, 
having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an 
officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  state  legislature, 
or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  state,  to  support  the  con 
stitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  house, 
remove  such  disability. 

SEC.  IV.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pen 
sions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebel 
lion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor 
any  state  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid 
of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim 
for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave  ;  but  all  such  debts,  obli 
gations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

SEC.  V.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

1  ART.  XV.  SEC.  I.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to 
vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any 
state,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

SEC.  II.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

1  The  fifteenth  amendment  was  proposed  in  1869,  and  adopted  in  i87o(§  789). 


APPENDIX    IV 
FORMATION  OF  STATES 


I.    IJeiaware  raimeu    me  ^UUSLILUL 

Dec.  12    1787 

2.   Pennsylvania 

Dec.  18    1787 

4.   Georgia 

Jan.     2,  1788 
....Ian       9    1  788 

5.    Connecticut                                                 ........ 

.    .  .  Feb      6    1788 

6.   Massachusetts                                          

.Apr.  28,  1788 

.  .  .  .June  21    1788 

June  25    1788 

10.   Virginia 

July  26    1788 

Nov.  21    1789 

.  Mav  20    1700 

r>  •        Mar     4    1  791 

15.   Kentucky 

June    i,  1792 

16.   Tennessee 

Nov.  29    1802 

17.   Ohio                                                             

Apr.  30    1812 

Dec.  ii    1816 

Dec.  10,  1817 

Dec.     3,  1818 

Dec.  14,  1819 

.    Mar    15    1820 

23.    Maine 

.......  .Aug.  10,  1821 

.  Tune  1  5    1836 

25-   Arkansas                                                    

.  .  .Jan.   26    1837 

.  .  .Mar.    3    1845 

Dec.  29    1845 

20.    lexas 

Dec.  28    1846 

29-   Iowa                                                            

May  29,  1848 

.  .  Sept.  Q,  18^0 

May  n,  1858 

.  .  Feb    14,  1859 

33.    Oregon                                                           

Jan.   29,  1861 

June  19,  1863 

.  .Oct.  31    1864 

Mar.    i    1867 

....  Aug.    i    1876 

Nov.    3    1889 

Nov.    3    1889 

.  .  .Nov     8    1889 

.  .  .  Nov  ii    1889 

.  .  Tul  v    ^    i  800 

July  10    1890 

559 

APPENDIX   V 


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563 


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564 


APPENDIX   Vll 


APPENDIX    VII 
POPULATION    OF   THE   SECTIONS,   1790-1860 


Year. 

Free  States. 

Slave  States. 

1790 

1,968,453 

1,961,374 

1800 

2,684,616 

2,621,316 

1810 

3.75S.9IO 

3,480,902 

1820 

5,152,3/2 

4,485,819 

1830 

7,006,399 

5,848,312 

1840 

9,733,922 

7,334,433 

1850 

13,599,488 

9,663,997 

1860 

19,128,418 

12,315,372 

APPENDIX    VIII 

CONGRESSIONAL   REPRESENTATION    OF   THE 
SECTIONS,   1790-1860 


Year. 

SKNATE. 

HOUSE. 

Free  States. 

Slave  States. 

Free  States. 

Slave  States. 

1790 

14 

12 

35 

30 

1792 

16 

14 

57 

48 

1796 

16 

16 

57 

49 

1  800 

16 

16 

57 

49 

1804 

18 

16 

77 

65 

1808 

18 

16 

77 

65 

1812 

18 

18 

103 

79 

1816 

20 

18 

104 

79 

1820 

24 

24 

105 

82 

1824 

24 

24 

123 

90 

1828 

24 

24 

123 

90 

1832 

24 

24 

141 

99 

1836 

26 

26 

142 

100 

1840 

26 

26 

142 

IOO 

1844 

26 

26 

135 

98 

1848 

30 

30 

139 

9i 

1852 

32 

30 

144 

90 

1856 

32 

30 

144 

90 

1860 

36 

3o 

147 

90 

{3gr-  To   find   the   Electoral   Votes,   add    together   the    number   of    Senators    and 
Representatives. 


APPENDIX  IX 


565 


APPENDIX    X 
CABINET   OFFICERS   OF  THE   ADMINISTRATIONS 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON  (I.  AND  II.),  1789-1797. 

Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,  September  26th, 
1789;  Edmund  Randolph,  Virginia,  January  2d,  179.4;  Timothy 
Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  December  loth,  1795.  Secretary  oj 
Ireasury,  Alexander  Hamilton,  New  York,  September  nth,  1789  ; 
Oliver  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  February  2d,  1795.  Secretary  of  War, 
Henry  Knox,  Massachusetts,  September  I2th,  1789;  Timothy  Pick 
ering,  Pennsylvania,  January  2d,  1795  ;  James  McHenry,  Maryland, 
January  27th,  1796.  Attorney-General,  Edmund  Randolph,  Virginia, 
September  26th,  1789;  William  Bradford,  Pennsylvania,  January 
27th,  1794;  Charles  Lee,  Virginia,  December  loth,  1795.  Post 
master-General,1  E.  Hazard,  January  28th,  1782-September  29th, 
1789  ;  Samuel  Osgood,  Massachusetts,  September  29th,  1789  ;  Tim 
othy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  August  I2th,  1791  ;  Joseph  Haber- 
sham,  Georgia,  February  25th,  1795. 

JOHN  ADAMS  (III.),  1797-1801. 

Secretary  of  State,  Timothy  Pickering,  continued  ;  John  Mar 
shall,  Virginia,  May  1 3th,  1800.  Secretary  oj  Treasury,  Oliver 
Wolcott,  continued  ;  Samuel  Dexter,  Massachusetts,  January  ist, 
1801.  Secretary  of  War,  James  McHenry,  continued;  Samuel 
Dexter,  Massachusetts,  May  I3th,  1800;  Roger  Griswold,  Con 
necticut,  February  3d,  1801.  Secretary  of  Navy? George  Cabot, 
Massachusetts,  May  3d,  1798;  Benjamin  Stoddert,  Maryland,  May 
2 ist,  1798.  Attorney-General,  Charles  Lee,  continued  ;  Theophilus 
Parsons,  Massachusetts,  February  2oth,  1801.  Postmaster-Gen 
eral,  Joseph  Habersham,  continued. 

1  Not  a  Cabinet  officer,  but  a  subordinate  of  the  Treasury  Department  until  1829. 

2  Naval  affairs  were  under  the  control  of  the  Secretary  of  War  until  a  separate  Navy  De 
partment  was  organized  by  Act  of  April  3  th,  1708.    The  Acts  organizing  the  other  Depart 
ments  were  of  the  follow  ng  dates  :  State,  September  isth.  1789;  Treasury,  September  2d, 
1789  ;    War,  August  7th,  1789.     The  Attorney-General's  duties  were  regulated  by  the  Judi 
ciary  Act  of  September  24th,  1789.     Interior,  March  sd,  1849.      For  the  establishment  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  see  §  296. 

567 


5  68  APPENDIX  X 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON  (IV.  AND  V.),  1801-1809. 

Secretary  of  State,  James  Madison,  Virginia,  March  5th,  1801. 
Secretary  of  Treasury,  Samuel  Dexter,  continued  ;  Albert  Gallatin, 
Pennsylvania,  May  Hth,  1801.  Secretary  of  War,  Henry  Dearborn, 
Massachusetts,  March  5th,  1801.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Benjamin 
Stoddert,  continued;  Robert  Smith,  Maryland,  July  I5th,  1801  ; 
Jacob  Crowninshield,  Massachusetts,  May  3d,  1805.  Attorney-Gen 
eral,  Levi  Lincoln,  Massachusetts,  March  5th,  1801  ;  Robert  Smith, 
Maryland,  March  3d,  1805  ;  John  Breckinridge,  Kentucky,  August 
7th,  1805  ;  Caesar  A.  Rodney,  Pennsylvania,  January  2oth,  1807. 
Postmaster-General,  Joseph  Habersham,  continued  ;  Gideon  Gran 
ger,  Connecticut,  November  28th,  1801. 

JAMES  MADISON  (VI.  AND  VII.),  1809-1817. 

Secretary  of  State,  Robert  Smith,  Maryland,  March  6th,  1809; 
James  Monroe,  Virginia,  April  2d,  1811.  Secretary  of  Treasury, 
Albert  Gallatin,  continued  ;  George  W.  Campbell,  Tennessee,  Feb 
ruary  9th,  1814;  A.  J.  Dallas,  Pennsylvania,  October  6th,  1814; 
William  H.  Crawford,  Georgia,  October  22d,  1816.  Secretary  of 
War,  William  Eustis,  Massachusetts,  March  7th,  1809;  John  Arm 
strong,  New  York,  January  I3th,  1813  ;  James  Monroe,  Virginia, 
September  27th,  1814;  William  H.  Crawford,  Georgia,  August  ist, 
1815.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Paul  Hamilton,  South  Carolina,  March 
7th,  1809  ;  William  Jones,  Pennsylvania,  January  I2th,  1813;  B. 
W.  Crowninshield,  Massachusetts,  December  I9th,  1814.  Attorney- 
General,  C.  A.  Rodney,  continued  ;  William  Pinckney,  Maryland, 
December  nth,  1811  ;  Richard  Rush,  Pennsylvania,  February  loth, 
1814.  Posmaster-General,  Gideon  Granger,  continued  ;  Return  J. 
Meigs,  Ohio,  March  i7th,  1814. 

JAMES  MONROE  (VIII.  AND  IX.),  1817-1825. 

Secretary  of  State,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Massachusetts,  March 
5th,  1817.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  William  H.  Crawford,  con 
tinued.  Secretary  of  War,  George  Graham,  Virginia,  April  7th, 
1817  ;  John  C.  Calhoun,  South  Carolina,  October  8th,  1817.  Secre 
tary  of  Navy,  B.  W.  Crowninshield,  continued  ;  Smith  Thompson, 
New  York,  November  9th,  1818  ;  John  Rogers,  Massachusetts, 
September  ist,  1823;  Samuel  L.  Southard,  New  Jersey,  Sep 
tember  i6th,  1823.  Attorney-General,  Richard  Rush,  continued; 
William  Wirt,  Virginia,  November  I3th,  1817.  Postmaster-Gen 
eral,  R.  J.  Meigs,  continued  ;  John  McLean,  Ohio,  June  26th,  1823. 

JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS  (X.).  1825-1829. 

Secretary  of  State,  Henry  Clay,  Kentucky,  March  7th,  1825.  Sec 
retary  of  Treasiiry,  Richard  Rush,  Pennsylvania,  March  7th,  1825. 


CABINET  OFFICERS   OF   THE  ADMINISTRATIONS       569 

Secretary  of  War,  James  Barbour,  Virginia,  March  7th,  1825  ; 
Peter  B.  Porter,  New  York,  May  26th,  1828.  Secretary  of  Navy, 
S.  L.  Southard,  continued.  Attorney-General,  William  Wirt,  con 
tinued.  Postmaster-General,  John  McLean,  continued. 

ANDREW  JACKSON  (XI.  AND  XII.),  1829-1837. 

Secretary  of  State,  Martin  Van  Buren,  New  York,  March  6th, 
1829;  Edward  Livingston,  Louisiana,  May  24th,  1831  ;  Louis 
McLane,  Delaware,  May  29th,  1833;  John  Forsyth,  Georgia,  June 
27th,  1834.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Samuel  D.  Ingham,  Pennsyl 
vania,  March  6th,  1829  ;  Louis  McLane,  Delaware,  August  8th, 
1831  ;  William  J.  Duane,  Pennsylvania,  May  29th,  1833  ;  Roger  B. 
Taney,  Maryland,  September  23d,  1833;  Levi  Woodbury,  New 
Hampshire,  June  27th,  1834.  Secretary  of  War,  John  H.  Eaton, 
Tennessee,  March  9th,  1829;  Lewis  Cass,  Michigan,  August  ist, 
1831  ;  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  New  York,  March  3d,  1837.  Secretary 
of  Navy,  John  Branch,  North  Carolina,  March  9th,  1829;  Levi 
Woodbury,  New  Hampshire,  May  23d,  1831  ;  Mahlon  Dickerson, 
New  Jersey,  June  3oth,  1834.  Attorney-General,  John  M.  Berrien, 
Georgia,  March  9th,  1839;  Roger  B.  Taney,  Maryland,  July  2oth, 
1831  ;  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  New  York,  November  I5th,  1833.  Post- 
inaster-General,  William  T.  Barry,  Kentucky,  March  9th,  1829; 
Amos  Kendall,  Kentucky,  May  ist,  1835. 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN  (XIII.),  1837-1841. 

Secretary  of  State,  John  Forsyth,  continued.  Secretary  of  Treas 
ury,  Levi  Woodbury,  continued.  Secretary  of  War,  Joel  R.  Poin- 
sett,  South  Carolina,  March  7th,  1837.  Secretary  qfNavy,Mati[oi\ 
Dickerson,  continued  ;  James  K.  Paulding,  New  York,  June  25th, 
1838.  Attorney-General,  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  continued  ;  Felix 
Grundy,  Tennessee,  July  5th,  1838;  Henry  D.  Gilpin,  Pennsylvania, 
January  iith,  1840.  Postmaster-General,  Amos  Kendall,  con 
tinued  ;  John  M.  Niles,  Connecticut,  May  I9th,  1840. 

WM.  H.  HARRISON,  (XIV.),  1841-1845. 

Secretary  of  State,  Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts,  March  5th, 
1841;  Hugh  S.  Legare,  South  Carolina,  May  9th,  1843;  A.  P. 
Upshur,  Virginia,  July  24th,  1843;  John  C.  Calhoun,  South  Caro 
lina,  March  6th,  1844.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Thomas  Ewing, 
Ohio,  March  5th,  1841  ;  Walter  Forward,  Pennsylvania,  September 
1 3th,  1841  ;  John  C.  Spencer,  New  York,  March  3d,  1843  ;  George 
M.  Bibb,  Kentucky,  June  I5th,  1844.  Secretary  of  War,  John  Bell, 
Tennessee,  March  5th,  1841  ;  John  McLean,  Ohio,  September  I3th, 
1841  ;  John  C.  Spencer,  New  York,  October  I2th,  1841  ;  James  M. 


57°  APPENDIX  X 

Porter,  Pennsylvania,  March  8th,  1843  J  William  Wilkins,  Pennsyl 
vania,  February  I5th,  1844.  Secretary  of  Navy,  G.  E.  Badger, 
North  Carolina,  March  5th,  1841  ;  A.  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  Septem 
ber  I3th,  1841  ;  David  Henshaw,  Massachusetts,  July  24th,  1843; 
T.  W.  Gilmer,  Virginia,  February  I5th,  1844;  John  Y.  Mason,  Vir 
ginia,  March  I4th,  1844.  Attorney-General,  John  J.  Crittenden, 
Kentucky,  March  5th,  1841  ;  Hugh  S.  Legare,  South  Carolina,  Sep 
tember  I3th,  1841  ;  John  Nelson,  Maryland,  July  ist,  1843.  Post 
master-General^  Francis  Granger,  New  York,  March  6th,  1841  ; 
Charles  A.  Wickliffe,  Kentucky,  September  I3th,  1841. 

JAMES  K.  POLK  (XV.),   1845-1849. 

Secretary  of  State,  James  Buchanan,  Pennsylvania,  March  6th, 
1845.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Robert  J.  Walker,  Mississippi, 
March  6th,  1845.  Secretary  of  War,  William  L.  Marcy,  New 
York,  March  6th,  1845.  Secretary  of  Navy,  George  Bancroft,  Mas 
sachusetts,  March  loth,  1845  J  John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  September 
9th,  1846.  Attorney-General,  John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  March  5th, 
1845;  Nathan  Clifford,  Maine,  October  lyth,  1846.  Postmaster- 
General,  Cave  Johnson,  Tennessee,  March  6th,  1845. 

ZACHARY  TAYLOR  (XVI.),   1849-1853. 

Secretary  of  State,  John  M.  Clayton,  Delaware,  March  7th,  1849  ; 
Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts,  July  22d,  1850;  Edward  Everett, 
Massachusetts,  December  6th,  1852.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  W. 
M.  Meredith,  Pennsylvania,  March  8th,  1849;  Thomas  Corwin, 
Ohio,  July  23d,  1850.  Secretary  of  State,  George  W.  Crawford, 
Georgia,  March  8th,  1849;  Winfield  Scott  (ad  interim},  July  23d, 
1850;  Charles  M.  Conrad,  Louisiana,  August  I5th,  1850.  Secre 
tary  of  Navy,  William  B.  Preston,  Virginia,  March  8th,  1849; 
William  A.  Graham,  North  Carolina,  July  22cl,  1850  ;  J.  P.  Ken 
nedy,  Maryland,  July  22d,  1852.  Secretary  of  Interior,1  Thomas  H. 
Ewing,  Ohio,  March  8th,  1849;  A-  H.  H.  Stuart,  Virginia,  Septem 
ber  1 2th,  1850.  Attorney-General,  Reverdy  Johnson,  Maryland, 
March  8th,  1849;  John  J-  Crittenden,  Kentucky,  July  22d,  1850. 
Postmaster-General,  Jacob  Collamer,  Vermont,  March  8th,  1849; 
Nathan  K.  Hall,  New  York,  July  230!,  1850  ;  S.  D.  Hubbard,  Con 
necticut,  August  3ist,  1852. 

FRANKLIN  PIERCE  (XVII.),  1853-1857. 

Secretary  of  State,  William  L.  Marcy,  New  York,  March  7th, 
1853  ;  Secretary  of  Treasury,  James  Guthrie,  Kentucky,  March  7th, 
1853;  Secretary  of  War,  Jefferson  Davis,  Mississippi,  March  7th, 

1  Organized  by  Act  of  March  3d,  1849. 


CABINET  OFFICERS   OF   THE  ADMINISTRATIONS       57 * 

1853.  Secretary  of  Navy,  James  C.  Dobbin,  North  Carolina, 
March  7th,  1853.  Secretary  of  Interior,  Robert  McClelland,  Mich 
igan,  March  7th,  1853.  Attorney -General,  Caleb  Cushing,  Massa 
chusetts,  March  7th,  1853.  Postmaster-General,  James  Campbell, 
Pennsylvania,  March  7th,  1853. 

JAMES  BUCHANAN  (XVIII.),   1857-1861. 

Secretary  of  State,  Lewis  Cass,  Michigan,  March  6th,  1857  ;  J.  S. 
Black,  Pennsylvania,  December  I7th,  1860.  Secretary  of  Treasury, 
Howell  Cobb,  Georgia,  March  6th,  1857  ;  Philip  F.  Thomas,  Mary 
land,  December  I2th,  1860;  John  A.  Dix,  New  York,  January  nth, 
1 86 1.  Secretary  of  War,  John  B.  Floyd,  Virginia,  March  6th, 
1857  ;  Joseph  Holt,  Kentucky,  January  i8th,  1861.  Secretary  of 
Navy,  Isaac  Toucey,  Connecticut,  March  6th,  1857.  Secretary  of 
Interior,  Jacob  Thompson,  Mississippi,  March  6th,  1857.  Attor 
ney-General,  J.  S.  Black,  Pennsylvania,  March  6th,  1857  ;  E.  M. 
Stanton,  Pennsylvania,  December  2oth,  1860.  Postmaster-General, 
Aaron  V.  Brown,  Tennessee,  March  6th,  1857  ;  Joseph  Holt,  Ken 
tucky,  March  I4th,  1859;  Horatio  King,  Maine,  February  I2th, 
1861. 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN  ) /YTV  vv        8,       a, 

v  (XIX.  AND  XX.),   I86l-l86o. 

ANDREW  JOHNSON  ) 

Secretary  of  State,  William  H.  Seward,  New  York,  March  5th, 
1861.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  S.  P.  Chase,  Ohio,  March  5th,  1861; 
W.  P.  Fessenden,  Maine,  July  ist,  1864;  Hugh  McCulloch,  Indiana, 
March  7th,  1865.  Secretary  of  War,  Simon  Cameron,  Pennsyl 
vania,  March  5th,  1861  ;  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pennsylvania,  January 
I5th,  1862;  U.  S.  Grant  (ad  interim}?  August  I2th,  1867  ;  Edwin 
M.  Stanton  (reinstated),  January  I4th,  1868  ;  J.  M.  Scofield,  Illinois, 
May  28th,  1868.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Gideon  Welles,  Connecticut, 
March  5th,  1861.  Secretary  of  Interior,  Caleb  P.  Smith,  March 
5th,  1861  ;  John  P.  Usher,  Indiana,  January  8th,  1863  ;  James  Har- 
lan,  Iowa,  May  I5th,  1865  ;  O.  H.  Browning,  Illinois,  July  27th, 
1866.  Attorney-General,  Edward  Bates,  Missouri,  March  5th,  1861 ; 
Titian  J.  Coffey  (ad  interim},  June  22d,  1863;  James  Speed,  Ken 
tucky,  December  2d,  1864;  Henry  Stanbery,  Ohio,  July  23d,  1866; 
William  M.  Evarts,  New  York,  July  I5th,  1868.  Postmaster- 
General,  Montgomery  Blair,  Maryland,  March  5th,  1861  ;  William 
Dennison,  Ohio,  September  24th,  1864;  Alexander  W.  Randall, 
Wisconsin,  July  25th,  1866. 

ULYSSES  S.  GRANT  (XXI.  AND  XXII.),  1869-1877. 

Secretary  of  State,  E.  B.  Washburne,  Illinois,  March  5th,  1869; 
Hamilton  Fish,  New  York,  March  nth,  1869.  Secretary  of  Treas- 

1  See  p.  216. 


572  APPENDIX  X 

ury,  George  S.  Boutvvell,  Massachusetts,  March  nth,  1869;  Wil 
liam  A.  Richardson,  Massachusetts,  March  lyth,  1873;  Benjamin 
H.  Bristow,  Kentucky,  June  2cl,  1874;  Lot  M.  Morrill,  Maine,  June 
2  ist,  1876.  Secretary  of  War,  John  A.  Rawlins,  Illinois,  March 
nth,  1869  ;  William  T.  Sherman,  Ohio,  September  9th,  1869  ;  Wil 
liam  W.  Belknap,  Iowa,  October  25th,  1869;  Alphonso  Taft,  Ohio, 
March  8th,  1876;  J.  D.  Cameron,  Pennsylvania,  May  22cl,  1876. 
Secretary  of  Navy,  Adolph  E.  Borie,  Pennsylvania,  March  5th, 
1869;  George  M.  Robeson,  New  Jersey,  June  25th,  1869.  Secre 
tary  of  Interior,  John  U.  Cox,  Ohio,  March  5th,  1869  ;  Columbus 
Delano,  Ohio,  November  ist,  1870;  Zachariah  Chandler,  Michigan, 
October  I9th,  1875.  Attorney-General,  E.  R.  Hoar,  Massachusetts, 
March  5th,  1869;  Amos  T.  Akerman,  Georgia,  June  23d,  1870; 
George  H.  Williams,  Oregon,  December  I4th,  1871  ;  Edwards 
Pierrepont,  New  York,  April  26th,  1875;  Alphonso  Taft,  Ohio, 
May  22d,  1876.  Postmaster-General,  J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  Maryland, 
March  5th,  1869;  Marshall  Jewell,  Connecticut,  August  24th,  1874; 
James  M.  Tyner,  Indiana,' July  I2th,  1876. 

RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES  (XXIII.),  1877-1881. 

Secretary  of  State,  William  M.  Evarts,  New  York,  March  I2th, 
1877.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  John  Sherman,  Ohio,  March  8th, 
1877.  Secretary  of  War,  George  W.  McCrary,  Iowa,  March  I2th, 
1877;  Alexander  Ramsey,  Minnesota,  December  i2th,  1879.  ^ec~ 
rctary  of  Navy,  Richard  W.  Thompson,  Indiana,  March  I2th. 
1877;  Nathan  Goff,  Jr.,  West  Virginia,  January  6th,  1881. 
Secretary  of  Interior,  Carl  Schurz,  Missouri,  March  I2th,  1877. 
Attorney-General,  Charles  Devens,  Massachusetts,  March  I2th, 
1877.  Postmaster-General,  David  M.  Key,  Tennessee,  March  I2th, 
1877  ;  Horace  Maynard,  Tennessee,  August  25th,  1880. 

JAMES  A.  GARFIELD  ) /vvTV  \ 
CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR  [(XXIV0> 
Secretary  of  State,  James  G.  Blaine,  Maine,  March  5th,  1881  ; 
Frederick  T.  Frelinghuysen,  New  Jersey,  December  I2th,  1881. 
Secretary  of  Treasury,  William  H.  Windom,  Minnesota,  March 
5th,  1 88 1  ;  Charles  J.  Folger,  New  York,  October  27th,  1881.  Sec 
retary  of  War,  Robert  T.  Lincoln,  Illinois,  March  5th,  1881.  Sec 
retary  of  Navy ,  W.  H.  Hunt,  Louisiana,  March  5th,  1881  ;  Wm. 
E.  Chandler,  New  Hampshire,  April  I2th,  1882.  Secretary  of  In 
terior,  S.  J.  Kirkwood,  Iowa,  March  5th,  1881  ;  Henry  M.  Teller, 
Colorado,  April  6th,  1882.  Attorney-General,  Wayne  MacVeagh, 
Pennsylvania,  March  5th,  1881  ;  Benjamin  H.  Brewster,  Pennsyl 
vania,  December  i6th,  1881.  Postmaster-General,  Thomas  L. 
James,  New  York,  March  5th,  1881  ;  Timothy  O.  Howe,  Wisconsin, 
December  2oth,  1881  ;  W.  O.  Gresham,  Indiana,  April  3d,  1883; 
Frank  Hatton,  Iowa,  October  I4th,  1884. 


CABINET  OFFICERS   OF   THE  ADMINISTRATIONS        573 

GROVER  CLEVELAND  (XXV.),  1885-1889. 

Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  F.  Bayard,  Delaware,  March  6th, 
1885.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Daniel  Manning,  New  York,  March 
6th,  1885;  Charles  S.  Fairchild,  New  York,  April  ist,  1887.  Secre 
tary  of  War,  William  C.  Endicott,  Massachusetts,  March  6th,  1885. 
Secretary  of  Navy,  William  C.  Whitney,  New  York,  March  6th, 
1885.  Secretary  of  Interior,  Lucius  O.  C.  Lamar,  Mississippi, 
March  6th,  1885  ;  William  F.  Vilas,  Wisconsin,  January  i6th,  1888. 
Attorney-General,  Augustus  H.  Garland,  Arkansas,  March  6th, 
1885.  Postmaster-General,  William  F.  Vilas,  Wisconsin,  March 
6th,  1885  ;  Don  M.  Dickinson,  Michigan,  January  i6th,  1888. 

BENJAMIN  HARRISON  (XXVI.),  1889-1893. 

Secretary  of  State, 1  James  G.  Elaine,  Maine,  March  7th,  1889; 
John  W.  Foster,  Indiana,  June  29th,  1892.  Secretary  of  Treasury, 
William  Windom,  Minnesota,  March  7th,  1889;  Charles  Foster, 
Ohio,  February  25th,  1891.  Secretary  of  War,  Redfield  Proctor, 
Vermont,  March  7th,  1889  ;  Stephen  B.  Elkins,  West  Virginia,  De 
cember  24th,  1891.  Attorney-General,^.  H.  H.  Miller,  Indiana, 
March  7th,  1889.  Postmaster-General,  John  Wanamaker,  Penn 
sylvania,  March  7th,  1889.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Benj.  F.  Tracy, 
New  York,  March  7th,  1889.  Secretary  of  Interior,  John  W. 
Noble,  Missouri,  March  7th,  1889.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Jere. 
M.  Rusk,  Wisconsin,  March  7th,  1889. 

GROVER  CLEVELAND  (XXVII.),   1893-1897. 

Secretary  of  State,  Walter  O.  Gresham,  Illinois,  March  7th, 
1893;  Richard  Olney,  Massachusetts,  June  loth,  1895.  Secretary 
of  Treasury,  John  G.  Carlisle,  Kentucky,  March  7th,  1893.  Secre 
tary  of  War,  Daniel  S.  Lamont,  New  York,  March  7th,  1893. 
Attorney-General,  Richard  Olney,  Massachusetts,  March  7th,  1893  ; 
Judson  Harmon,  Ohio,  June  nth,  1895.  Postmaster-General,  Wil 
son  S.  Bissell,  New  York,  March  7th,  1893;  William  L.  Wilson, 
West  Virginia,  April  3d,  1895.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Hilary  A. 
Herbert,  Alabama,  March  7th,  1893.  Secretary  of  Interior,  Hoke 
Smith,  Georgia,  March  7th,  1893  ;  David  R.  Francis,  Missouri,  Sep 
tember  3d,  1896.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Julius  Sterling  Morton, 
Nebraska,  March  7th,  1893. 

WILLIAM  MCKINLEY  (XXVIII.),  1897 

Secretary  of  State,  John  Sherman,  Ohio,  March  6th,  1897  ;  \Vil- 
liam  R.  Day,  Ohio,  April  26th,  1898  ;  John  Hay,  Ohio,  September 

1  The  Cabinet  is  here  arranged  in  the  order  of  succession  for  the  Presidency  according  to 
Act  of  XLIXth  Congress,  which  does  not,  however,  include  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


574  APPENDIX  X 

3oth,  1898.  Secretary  of  Treasury,  Lyman  J.  Gage,  Illinois, 
March  6th,  1897.  Secretary  of  War,  Russell  A.  Alger,  Michigan, 
March  6th,  1897;  Elihu  Root,  New  York,  July  220",  1899, 
Attorney-General,  Joseph  McKenna,  California,  March  6th,  1897; 
John  W.  Griggs,  New  Jersey,  January  3ist,  1898;  Philander  C. 
Knox,  Pennsylvania,  April  5th,  1901.  Postmaster-General, 
James  A.  Gary,  Maryland,  March  6th,  1897;  Charles  Emory 
Smith,  Pennsylvania,  April  2ist,  1898.  Secretary  of  Navy, 
John  D.  Long,  Massachusetts,  March  6th,  1897.  Secretary  of 
Interior,  Cornelius  N.  Bliss,  New  York,  March  6th,  1897;  Ethan 
Allen  Hitchcock,  Missouri,  December  2ist,  1898;  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  James  Wilson,  Iowa,  March  6th,  1897. 


APPENDIX   XI 


EXTRACTS    FROM   WASHINGTON'S    FAREWELL   ADDRESS 
TO   THE   AMERICAN    PEOPLE 

SEPT.  17,  1796. 

FRIENDS  AND  FELLOW  CITIZENS  :  The  period  for  a  new  election 
of  a  citizen  to  administer  the  executive  government  of  the  United 
States  being  not  far  distant,  it  appears  to  me  proper  that  I  should 
now  apprise  you  of  the  resolution  which  I  have  formed,  to  decline 
being  considered  among  the  number  of  those  out  of  whom  a  choice 
is  to  be  made.  In  looking  forward  to  the  moment  which  is  intended 
to  terminate  my  public  life,  my  feelings  do  not  permit  me  to  sus 
pend  the  deep  acknowledgment  of  that  debt  of  gratitude  which  I 
owe  to  my  beloved  country  for  the  many  honors  it  has  conferred 
upon  me  ;  still  more  for  the  steadfast  confidence  with  which  it  has 
supported  me,  and  for  the  opportunities  I  have  thence  enjoyed  of 
manifesting  my  attachment  by  services  faithful  and  persevering, 
though  in  usefulness  unequal  to  my  zeal.  If  benefits  have  resulted 
to  our  country  from  these  services,  let  it  always  be  remembered  to 
your  praise,  and  as  an  instructive  example  in  our  annals,  that  the  con 
stancy  of  your  support  was  the  essential  prop  of  the  efforts,  and  of 
the  plans  by  wrhich  they  were  effected.  Here,  perhaps,  I  ought  to 
stop  ;  but  solicitude  for  your  welfare  urges  me  to  offer  to  your 
solemn  contemplation,  and  to  recommend  to  your  frequent  review, 
some  sentiments  which  appear  to  me  all-important  to  your  felicity 
as  a  people. 

Interwoven  as  is  the  love  of  liberty  with  every  ligament  of  your 
hearts,  no  recommendation  of  mine  is  necessary  to  confirm  the  at 
tachment.  The  unity  of  government,  which  constitutes  you  one 
people,  is  also  now  dear  to  you.  It  is  justly  so  ;  for  it  is  a  main 
pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real  independence — the  support  of  your 
tranquillity  at  home,  your  peace  abroad,  of  your  safety,  of  your  pros 
perity,  of  that  very  liberty  which  you  so  highly  prize.  While,  then, 
every  part  of  our  country  feels  an  interest  in  the  Union,  all  the 
parts  combined  cannot  fail  to  find  greater  strength,  greater  re 
source,  greater  security  from  external  danger,  a  less  frequent  inter 
ruption  of  their  peace  by  foreign  nations,  and  an  exemption  from 
wars  between  themselves.  Hence,  likewise,  they  will  avoid  the 
necessity  of  those  overgrown  military  establishments,  which  are  par- 

575 


576  WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL   ADDRESS 

ticularly  hostile  to  republican  liberty.     In  this  sense  it  is  that  your 
union  ought  to  be  considered  as  the  main  prop  of  your  liberty. 

Of  all  the  dispositions  and  habits  which  lead  to  political  pros 
perity,  religion,  and  morality  are  indispensable  supports.  In  vain 
would  that  man  claim  the  tribute  of  patriotism,  who  should  labor 
to  subvert  these  great  pillars  of  human  happiness.  The  mere  poli 
tician,  equally  with  the  pious  man,  ought  to  respect  and  to  cherish 
them. 

Promote,  as  an  object  of  primary  importance,  institutions  for  the 
general  diffusion  of  knowledge.  In  proportion  as  the  structure  of  a 
government  gives  force  to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public 
opinion  should  be  enlightened. 

As  a  very  important  source  of  strength  and  security,  cherish  pub 
lic  credit.  One  method  of  preserving  it  is  to  use  it  as  sparingly  as 
possible,  avoiding  the  accumulation  of  debt,  not  only  by  shunning 
occasions  of  expense,  but  by  vigorous  exertions  in  time  of  peace  to 
discharge  the  debts  which  unavoidable  wars  may  have  occasioned. 

The  great  rule  of  conduct  for  us,  in  regard  to  foreign  nations,  is 
in  extending  our  commercial  relations,  to  have  with  them  as  little 
Political  connection  as  possible.  So  far  as  we  have  already  formed 
engagements,  let  them  be  fulfilled  with  perfect  good  faith.  Here 
let  us  stop.  It  is  our  true  policy  to  steer  clear  of  permanent  alli 
ances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world. 

Though,  in  reviewing  the  incidents  of  my  administration,  I  am 
unconscious  of  intentional  errors,  I  am  nevertheless  too  sensible  of 
my  defects  not  to  think  it  probable  that  I  may  have  committed  many 
errors.  Whatever  they  may  be,  I  fervently  beseech  the  Almighty 
to  avert  or  mitigate  the  evils  to  which  they  may  tend.  I  shall  also 
carry  with  me  the  hope  that  my  country  will  never  cease  to  view 
them  with  indulgence  ;  and  that,  after  forty-five  years  of  my  life 
dedicated  to  its  service  with  an  upright  zeal,  the  faults  of  incompe 
tent  abilities  will  be  consigned  to  oblivion,  as  myself  must  soon  be 
to  the  mansions  of  rest.  Relying  on  its  kindness,  and  actuated  by 
that  fervent  love  towards  it  which  is  so  natural  to  a  man  who  views 
in  it  the  native  soil  of  himself  and  his  progenitors  for  several  gener 
ations,  I  anticipate  with  pleasing  expectation  that  retreat  in  which 
I  promise  myself  to  realize  the  sweet  enjoyment  of  partaking,  in  the 
midst  of  my  fellow  citizens,  the  benign  influence  of  good  laws  under 
a  free  government — the  ever  favorite  object  of  my  heart,  and  the 
happy  reward,  as  I  trust,  of  our  mutual  cares,  labors,  and  dangers. 

G.  WASHINGTON. 

UNITED  STATES,  lyth  September,  1796. 

[The  above  is  but  a  small  portion  of  this  celebrated  address,  and 
has  been  abbreviated  with  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  pupil  to  un 
derstand  something  of  Washington's  advice  to  him.] 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 

NOTE.— The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 

St.  and  Fort  are  considered  parts  of  the  reference  name;  de  and  von  are  not.  Thus, 
look  for  St.  Louis  under  the  letter  S;  for  Fort  Sumter  under  F;  for  de  Grasse  under  G;  for 
von  Steuben  under  S. 

The  pronunciation  is  indicated  in  all  fairly  doubtful  cases,  and  the  characters  which  indi 
cate  it  have  been  made  as  few  and  simple  as  possible.  Pronounce  a  as  in  mate,  6  as  in 
mete,  I  as  in  mite,  5  as  in  mote,  u  as  in  mute ;  &  as  in  bag,  e  as  in  beg,  I  as  in  big,  5  as  in 
bog,  u  as  in  bug;  a  with  the  obscure  sound  of  a  in  idea;  ah  as  a  \r\father;  aw  as  in  saiv; 
ow  as  in  cow;  oo  as  in  foot;  ch  as  in  chamber;  g  always  hard,  as  \nget,  }  being  used  for 
the  soft  sound  of  g.  Italic  e  is  silent,  but  shows  that  the  vowel  preceding  it  in  the  same 
syllable  is  long.  In  French  names,  the  capital  letters  H  and  R  are  to  be  pronounced  more 
forcibly  than  we  are  accustomed  to  pronounce  them  in  English.  An(g)  is  the  French  nasal 
sound;  it  is  uttered  very  much  as  spelled,  except  that  it  stops  before  the  sound  of  ng  is  quite 
completed  Letters  not  mentioned  here,  or  unmarked,  are  to  be  pronounced  as  they  would 
be  in  an  English  word. 


ABOLITIONISTS,  their  first  appearance, 
462;  charged  with  instigating  negro 
insurrection,  462;  their  use  of  the 
mails,  492;  attacks  on  them,  493; 
their  political  action,  494,  515,  547; 
their  increase  in  numbers,  556;  their 
final  success,  669,  757. 

Acadia  (a-ka'di-a),  its  settlement  by 
de  Monts,  19;  conquest  by  the  Eng 
lish,  71,  146. 

Acquisitions  of  territory,  544;  in 
square  miles,  773. 

Adams,  C.  F.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  548. 

Adams,  John,  a  Massachusetts  leader, 
169;  in  the  second  Continental  Con 
gress,  192;  connection  with  the  Dec 
laration  of  Independence,  206,  432; 
elected  Vice-President,  287,  304; 
President,  311;  his  defeat  in  1800, 
323;  his  death,  432;  his  career,  439. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  Secretary  of 
State,  412;  elected  President,  427; 
connection  with  the  American  sys 
tem,  434;  defeated  in  1828,  438; 
his  career,  439;  connection  with  the 
Abolitionists,  558. 

Adams,  Samuel,  a  Massachusetts 
leader,  169;  in  the  second  Con 
tinental  Congress,  192. 

Administration   of  Justice  Act,   175. 

Africa,  early  exploration  in,  4,   12. 

Agricultural  machinery,  its  poor  con 
dition  in  1790,  289;  invention  of  the 
mowing  and  reaping  machine,  338, 
448;  modern  condition,  594. 

Aguinaldp  (ah-gwin-ahl'do),  leader  of 
the  Philippine  insurgents,  881;  de 
mands  independence  for  Filipinos, 
900. 


Alabama  (al-er-bah'ma)  unsettled  in 
1812,  394;  admission,  419;  seces 
sion,  613;  re-conquest.  727;  read- 
mission,  762. 

Alabama  Claims,  the,  their  origin, 
627,  672;  their  settlement,  776-7. 

Alabama,  the,  escape  of,  672;  work  of, 
696;  destroyed  by  the  Kearsarge, 
720;  after-consequences,  776-7. 

Alargon  (ah-laR'sonc)  discovers  the 
Colorado,  16. 

Alaska  bought  from  Russia,  523,  773; 
Klondike  gold-fields,  893. 

Albany  (awl'ba-ni),  N.  Y.,  early 
Dutch  settlement,  no;  called  Fort 
Orange,  117;  threatened  by  Bur- 
goyne,  219;  connected  with  Buffalo 
by  the  Erie  Canal,  424. 

Albany  Plan  of  Union,  the,  rejected 
by  both  crown  and  colonies,  145. 

Albemarle  (al-be-marl')  Colony,  the, 
a  Virginian  settlement  in  North 
Carolina,  93. 

Albemarle  Sound,  N.  C.,  limit  of  the 
Cabot  voyage,  10. 

Albemarle,  the,   sunk  by  a  torpedo,  716. 

Alert,  .the,  captured  by  the  Essex,  366. 

Alger,  Russell  A.,  Secretary  of  War, 
869;  resigns,  898. 

Algiers  (al-jeerz'),  one  of  the  Barbary 
States,  341 ;  compelled  to  seize  pi 
racy,  404. 

Algonquins  (al-gon'kwinz),  an  Indian 
race,  3. 

Alien   Laws,  the,  their  passage,  321. 

Alleghany  (al'le-ga-m)  Mountains, 
the,  their  location,  116;  serve  as  a 
western  boundary  to  the  English 
colonies,  135,  272;  passed  by  emi 
gration  after  1790,  291. 

577 


578 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Allen,  Chas.  H.,  governor  of  Porto 
Rico,  903. 

Allen,  Ethan,  captures  Ticonderoga, 
199. 

Allen,  Capt.  W.  II.,  captured  in  the 
Argus,  372. 

Altamaha  (al-ta-ma-haw')  River,  the, 
Oglethorpe's  battle  near,  106. 

Alton,  111.,  riot  at,  493. 

Ambrister  (am'bris-ter),  Robert  C., 
executed  by  Jackson,  414. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  how 
made,  284;  object  of  the  first 
ten  Amendments,  286;  adoption 
of  the  first  ten  Amendments, 
297;  adoption  of  the  i2th  Amend 
ment,  295,  323;  of  the  i3th  Amend 
ment,  757;  of  the  i4th  Amend 
ment,  763;  of  the  isth  Amendment, 
789. 

America,  origin  of  the  name,  8. 

America,  the,  presented  to  France, 
243. 

American  Party,  the,  its  origin,  572; 
its  defeat  and  disappearance,  582. 

American     System,     the:      Clay     and    j 
Adams    unite    protective    tariff    and     | 
internal     improvements    under    this 
title,    434;     opposed    by    the    South, 
435;  by  Jackson,  470;  adopted  by  the 
Whigs,   471;     overthrown    until    1861 
(see  Protection),  521. 

Anaesthetics,  their  use  in  surgery,  517. 

Anarchists,  829. 

Anderson,  Major  Robert,  in  com 
mand  at  Fort  Sumter,  617. 

Andersonville,   Ga.,   prison,   725. 

Andre  (an'dra),  Major  John,  captured 
and  executed  as  a  spy,  238. 

Andros  (an'dros).  Sir  Edmund,  his 
proceedings  at  Hartford,  61;  object 
of  his  appointment  as  governor  of 
New  England,  70;  his  removal,  70; 
appointed  governor  of  Virginia,  70. 

Anglo-American  alliance,  887. 

Anglo-American  commission,  887. 

Anglo-American  league,  887. 

Annapolis  (an-nap'6-lis),  Md.,  found 
ed,  86;  Washington  surrenders  his 
commission  at,  264;  first  attempt  to 
hold  a  Federal  Convention  at,  278; 
establishment  of  the  Naval  School 
at,  519. 

Annapolis,  N.  S.,  capture  of,  72. 

Anne,  Queen,  71. 

Anthracite  coal  discovered  in  Penn 
sylvania  in  1791,  338,  note;  shipped 
to  Philadelphia  in  1806,  338;  little 
used  until  1830,  338,  note;  used  on 
railroads  and  steamboats  about  1835, 
446;  general  use,  511. 

Antietam   (an-te'tam),  battle  of,  666. 

Anti-Federal  Party,  the,  its  origin, 
285;  defeat  and  disappearance,  303. 

Anti-imperialists,  905. 

Anti-Masons,  their  origin,  472. 

Anti-Nebraska  Men,  the  first  name  of 
the  Republican  Party  of  1856,  576. 

Anti-renters,  their  purposes,  514. 


Antislavery  Society,  the,  its  origin, 
462  (see  Abolitionists). 

Anti-trust  agitation,  891. 

Appomattox  (ap-po-mat'tocks)  River, 
the,  Lee's  line  of  retreat,  733;  Court 
house,  Lee's  surrender  at,  733. 

Arabian,  the,  the  first  American  loco 
motive,  443,  note. 

Arbitration,  the  treaty,  867;  proposals 
of  the  Hague  conference  ratified, 
897. 

Arbuthnot  (ar'buth-not),  Alexander, 
executed  by  Jackson,  414. 

Argus,  the,  her  successful  cruise,  372; 
captured  by  the  Pelican,  372. 

Arkansas  (ar'kan-saw)  admission,  454; 
secession,  626;  re-conquest,  683; 
readmission,  762;  disorders  in,  790. 

Arkansas,  the,  captured  by  the  Union 
fleet,  655. 

Army,  th~:  formation  of  an  American 
army,  191;  difficulties  in  the  way, 
197;  flag  and  uniform,  197;  dis 
banded  without  just  treatment,  264; 
government  of  the  army,  281;  com- 
mand-in-chief,  282;  a  new  army  be 
gun  in  1798,  319;  inefficiency  of  the 
army  in  1812,  352;  reorganization  in 

1813,  364;     success    of    the   army    in 

1814,  391 ;     the   army    of   the    South 
west,    395;     capture    of    the    regular 
army   in   the   South,   616;     formation 
of   a   volunteer    army,    629;     support 
by  Congress,  631 :    care  of  the  army, 
692;     reinforcement   of  the,   693,   722; 
numbers    of   the    army,    746;     losses, 
747;    disbandment  of  the  army,  752; 
formation   of  the  volunteer  army   of 
1898,   880. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  his  march  through 
Maine  and  retreat  from  Quebec,  200; 
beats  the  British  back  from  Fort 
Schuyler,  220;  his  daring  at  Sara 
toga,  223;  his  treason,  238;  ravages 
Virginia,  252;  butchers  the  garrison 
at  New  London,  259. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  elected  Vice- 
President,  817;  succeeds  to  the 
presidency  at  Garfield's  death,  818. 

Articles  of  Association  put  forth  by 
the  Continental  Congress,  177. 

Articles  of  Confederation  ratified  by 
the  States,  270;  found  to  be  worth 
less,  275;  the  impossibility  of 
amending  them,  277;  succeeded  by 
the  Constitution,  287. 

Assemblies  the  real  governing  power 
of  the  colonies,  36,  130,  162;  that 
of  Virginia  the  first,  76;  take  sides 
against  the  Parliament,  162,  172;  the 
people  side  with  the  assemblies,  172. 

Astor   Library,   595. 

Atlanta,  Ga.,  not  on  the  map  in  1830, 
451;  held  by  Johnston,  697,  706; 
captured  by  Sherman,  709;  burned 
by  Sherman,  712;  holds  a  Cottoii 
Exposition,  824. 

Atlanta,  the,  destroyed  by  the  Wee- 
hawkcn,  688. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


579 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Atlantic  telegraph,  the,  successfully 
laid,  772. 

Attorney-General,  the  office  of,  estab 
lished,  298. 

Augusta  (aw-gus'to),  Ga.,  founded, 
104;  captured  by  the  British,  244. 

Austria,  the  Koszta  dispute  with,  568. 

Avon,  the,  taken  by  the  Wasp,  374. 

Ayllon  (ilr-yon^'),  9. 

Azores  (o-zorz')  Islands,  the,  Gos- 
nold's  route  by,  24;  Reid's  battle 
in,  376. 

BACON,  NATHANIEL,  his  rebellion  and 
death,  82. 

Bahama  (ba-ha'ma)  Islands,  the,  dis 
covered  by  Columbus,  6. 

Bainbridge  (banc'brij),  Capt.  William, 
in  command  of  the  Constitution,  368. 

Baker,  E.  D.,  killed  at  Ball's  Bluff, 
634,  note. 

Ballot  reform,  833. 

Ball's  Bluff,  battle  of,  634. 

Baltimore  (bawl'ti-more),  Lord,  found 
er  of  Maryland,  85. 

Baltimore,  Md.,  founded,  86;  seat  of 
Congress  in  1776,  211;  beats  off  the 
British,  387;  riot  in,  623. 

Bancroft,  George,  the  historian,  458. 

Bank  of  the  United  States,  first  one 
chartered,  300;  charter  expires,  408; 
second  chartered,  408;  Jackson  at 
tacks  it,  468;  vetoes  the  renewal  of 
the  charter,  469;  charter  expires, 
469;  the  Whigs  support  the  bank, 
471;  attempt  to  charter  a  third, 
501. 

Banks,  wildcat,  484. 

Banks,  Gen.  Nathaniel  P.,  beaten  by 
Jackson,  662;  in  command  in  Lou 
isiana,  679;  fails  in  his  Red  River 
expedition,  715. 

Barbadoes  (bar-ba'doz),  colonists  from 
Barbadoes  in  Carolina,  93. 

Barbary  States,  the,  professional  pi 
rates,  341 ;  beaten  into  peace  by  the 
American  navy,  342;  brought  to 
terms,  404. 

Barclay,  Capt.  R.  H.,  commands  the 
British  fleet  on  Lake  Erie,  381. 

Baton  Rouge  (bat'n  roozh),  La.,  655. 

Baum  (bowm),  Lieut.-Col.,  com 
mands  the  British  at  Bennington, 
220. 

Beauregard  (bo-re-gard'),  Gen.  P.  G. 
T.,  commands  at  Manassas  Junc 
tion,  632;  at  Corinth,  643. 

Beef  scandal,  the,  899. 

Behaim's  globe,  4,  note. 

Bell,  John,  nominated  for  the  presi 
dency,  608. 

Bemis  Heights,  battle  of,  222. 

Bennington,  battle  of,  220. 

Bering  Sea  seal  fisheries,  848. 

Berkeley  (berk'li),  Gov.  William,  sup 
presses  Bacon's  rebellion,  82. 

Berkeley,  Lord  John,  one  of  the  pro 
prietors  of  New  Jersey,  118. 

Berlin  Decree  of  Napoleon,  343. 


Berlin  treaty,  the,  regarding  Samoa, 
894. 

Bidwell,  John,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  854. 

Big  Bethel,  skirmish  of,  629,  note. 

Big  Horn  River,  Indian  battle  at,  785. 

Biloxi   (be-loks'I),   Miss.,   settled,   138. 

Bimetallism,  the  paramount  issue  in 
the  election  of  1896,  865;  failure  of 
international  commission,  872;  in 
1900,  906. 

Black  Hawk,  his  war  against  the 
whites,  463. 

Bladensburgh  (bla'dnz-burg),  battle 
of,  386. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  nominated 
for  President,  826;  defeated,  826. 

Blair,  Francis  P.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  but  defeated,  768. 

Blakely  (blake'li),  Capt.  J.»  in  com 
mand  of  the  Wasp,  374. 

Blanco  (blah'n-co),  Ramon  (rah/- 
mon),  in  Cuba,  874. 

Bland-Allison  Act,  the,  812. 

Blockade  (of  1813),  371,  383;  (of  1861), 
625,  650;  of  Cuba,  882. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  makes  peace 
with  the  United  States,  320;  sells 
Louisiana  to  the  United  States,  334; 
forbids  American  commerce  with 
Europe,  343;  fraudulently  arrays 
the  United  States  against  Great 
Britain,  349;  is  sent  to  Elba,  397. 

Bonds,    161,   814,   825,   857,   886. 

Bonhomme  Richard  (bo-nqm're-shaR'), 
the,  captures  the  Scrapis,  242. 

Boone,  Daniel,  settles  in  Kentucky, 
157,  note. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  the  murderer  of 
President  Lincoln,  737. 

Border  States,  the,  their  course  of  ac 
tion,  626. 

Boston,  Mass.,  founded,  49;  rebel 
lious  proceedings  in,  171,  174;  the 
attempt  to  punish  them,  175;  siege 
of,  183;  evacuation  of,  198;  popu 
lation  in  1790,  288;  great  fire  in, 
784. 

Boston  Massacre,  the,  171. 

Boston  Port  Act,  the,   175. 

Boston  Tea-party,  the,  174. 

Boundaries,  colonial  and  State,  west 
ern  boundary  at  first  supposed  to  be 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  135;  after  1763 
the  Mississippi,  271;  really  the  Al- 
leghanies,  272;  western  boundaries 
fixed,  273. 

Boundaries,  United  States,  in  1783, 
263;  the  northeast  boundary,  497; 
the  northern  boundary,  503;  the 
northwest  boundary,  504,  523,  777; 
the  southwest  boundary,  524; 
changes  produced  by  the  Mexican 
war,  528,  544  (see  Acquisitions  of 
Territory). 

Bowling  (bole'ing)  Green,  Ky.,  occu 
pied  by  the  Confederates,  639. 

Boxer,  the,  captured  by  the  Enter 
prise,  370. 


58° 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Braddock,  General  William,  defeated 
and  killed  near  Fort  Duquesne,  146. 

Bradford,  William,  a  Massachusetts 
leader,  47. 

Bragg,  Gen.  Braxtpn,  his  raid  into 
Kentucky,  644;  rights  a  battle  at 
Murfreesboro,  645;  evacuates  Chat 
tanooga,  685 ;  fights  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  685;  besieges  Chattanooga, 
686;  beaten  back  to  Dalton  by 
Grant,  and  removed,  687. 

Brandywine   Creek,    battle   on,   216. 

Brant,  Joseph,  an  Indian  chief  in  the 
British  service,  232. 

Brazil   (bra-zeel'),  720. 

Breckinjidge,  John  C.,  elected  Vice- 
President,  582;  defeated  for  the 
presidency,  608. 

Breed's  Hill,  battle  on,   194. 

Breton  (bret'n),  Cape,  discovered  by 
Cabot,  10 ;  occupied  by  the  French, 
72;  by  the  English,  148,  154. 

Breyman  (bra'man),  Col.,  in  com-  < 
mand  of  the  British  in  the  second  I 
fight  at  Bennington,  220. 

Briar   Creek,   Ga.,   skirmish   at,  245. 

Bridges,  early  lack  of,  133,  290;  mod-  j 
ern  suspension,  566. 

Bridgewater,  battle  of,  392. 

Bristol,  R.  I.,  destroyed  by  the  Brit 
ish,  203. 

Brock,  Gen.  Isaac,  captures  Detroit 
and  the  American  garrison,  356. 

Broke,  Capt.  P.  V.,  in  command  of 
the  Shannon,  372. 

Brooke,  Gen.  John  R.,  Governor-Gen 
eral  of  Cuba,  902;  of  Porto  Rico, 
903;  succeeded  by  Gen.  Henry,  903.  i 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  a  ferry  station,  117; 
captured  by  the  British,  209. 

Brooks,  John  A.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  840,  note. 

Brooks,  P.   S.,  assaults  Sumner,  581 

Brown,   B.   Gratz,   796. 

Brown,  Gen.  Jacob,  at  Sackett's  Har 
bor,  362,  note;  reorganizes  the  army, 
364;  at  Chippewa,  392;  wounded, 
392;  returns  to  command,  393. 

Brown,  John,  his  raid  on  Harper's 
Ferry  and  execution,  604. 

Brownsville,  Tex.,  captured  by  Tay 
lor,  524. 

Brown  University,  foundation  of,  187. 

Bryan,  Wm.  J.,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent  and  defeated,  865;  renomi- 
nated,  906. 

Bryant   Park,   N.  Y.,  564. 

Bryant,  William   Cullen,  457. 

Buccaneers  in   New  York,   114. 

Buchanan  (buk-an'an),  James,  elected 
President,  582. 

Buchanan,  Franklin,  in  command  of 
the  Mcrrimac  and  Tennessee,  718. 

Buckner,  Gen.  S.  B.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  865. 

Buel     (bu'el),     Gen.     Don     Carlos,    in    ' 
command    in    Kentucky,    639;     rein 
forces  Grant,  642;    fights  a  battle  at    , 
Perryville,  644. 


Buena  Vista  (bwa'nah  vees'tah),  bat 
tle  of,  532-3. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  not  on  the  map  in 
1812,  354;  benefited  by  the  War  of 
1812,  405;  by  the  Erie  Canal,  424. 

Bull   Run,   battle  of,  632. 

Bull   Run,  second  battle  of,  664. 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  194-6. 

Burgoyne  (bur-goin'),  Gen.  John,  ar 
rives  at  Boston,  194;  organizes  an 
army  in  Canada  for  the  invasion  of 
New  York,  218;  surrenders  to 
Gates  at  Saratoga,  222. 

Burke,  Edmund,  champions  the  cause 
of  the  colonies,  202. 

Burlington,  N.  J.,  settlement  of,   119. 

Burnside,  Gen.  Ambrose  E.,  in  com 
mand  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
666;  defeated  at  Fredericksburgh, 
667;  in  command  at  Knoxville,  686. 

Burr,  Aaron,  elected  Vice-President, 
323;  shoots  Hamilton,  332;  not  re- 
elected  Vice-President,  339;  his 
Mississippi  expedition.  340. 

Burrows,  Lieut.  W.,  in  command  of 
the  Enterprise,  370. 

Butler,  Gen.  Benj.  F.,  in  command  at 
Hatteras  Inlet,  636;  at  New  Orleans, 
654;  removed,  679;  sent  to  attack 
Petersburgh,  700;  "  bottled  up," 
703;  his  Fort  Fisher  expedition, 
716;  his  treatment  of  runaway 
slaves,  754,  note;  nominated  for 
President,  but  defeated,  826,  note. 

Butler,  John,   a  Tory  leader,  232. 

Butler,  Wm.  Orlando,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  548. 

CABAL,  the  Conway,  223. 

Cabinet,  the,  meaning  of  the  term, 
296. 

Cabots  (kab'ots),  the,  their  discover 
ies,  10. 

Cabrillo  (kah-breel'yo),  a  Spanish  ex 
plorer,  15. 

Cairo  (ki'ro),  111.,  occupied  by  Grant, 

Calhoun  (kal-hoon'),  John  C.,  Sec 
retary  of  War,  412;  elected  Vice- 
President,  427;  re-elected,  438;  not 
re-elected  Vice-President,  473;  his 
doctrine  of  nullification,  476;  his 
death,  558. 

California,  early  explorations  in,  13; 
belongs  to  Mexico,  528;  seized  by 
the  American  forces,  529;  trans 
ferred  to  the  United  States,  543; 
discovery  of  gold  in,  549;  disor 
ders  in,  553;  difficulties  of  admis 
sion,  553;  admission  as  a  State,  555. 

Calvert,  Cecil  (sis'il  kol'vert).  re 
ceives  a  patent  for  the  colony  of 
Maryland,  85. 

Calvert,  Sir  George,  plans  a  colony 
in  America,  85. 

Calvert,  Leonard,  leads  the  settle 
ment  of  Maryland,  86. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  settlement  of,  49; 
Harvard  College  founded  at,  75; 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Cambridge — Continued. 
headquarters  of  the  American  army, 
197. 

Camden,  battle  of,  249. 

Canada,  settled  by  the  French,  19, 
30;  early  explorations  by  the 
French,  136;  conquered  by  the 
British,  152;  transferred  to  Great 
Britain,  154;  attacked  by  the  Ameri 
can  forces,  199;  the  Americans  are 
driven  out  of  it,  200;  receives  the 
Tories  at  the  close  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  266;  unsuccessful  invasions  of 
Canada  by  the  American  forces, 
357.  362-3;  battles  in,  392-3;  Patriot 
War,  496;  Confederate  agents  in, 
724;  Fenian  attack  on,  771;  fisher 
ies  dispute  with,  777,  834. 

Canals,  in  New  England,  312;  na 
tional  provision  for,  422,  434;  the 
Erie  canal,  424;  further  canal  con 
struction  by  the  States,  453,  489; 
the  Panama  canal,  834;  the  Nicara 
gua  canal,  895-6,  906. 

Canary  Islands,  the,  6. 

Caney   (ka-nay'),  882. 

Canonicus  (ka-non'i-kus),  an  Indian 
chief,  62. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  the,  882. 

Capital  of  the  United  States,  at  Phila 
delphia,  299;  at  Washington,  324. 

Carolina  becomes  a  royal  colony,  35; 
named  for  Charles  IX.  of  France 
and  Charles  II.  of  England,  90. 

"  Carpet-bagger,"  meaning  of  the 
term,  789,  note. 

Carteret  (kar-ter-et'),  Sir  George,  one 
of  the  proprietors  of  New  Jersey,  118. 

Cartier,  Jacques  (zhak  kaR't-ya),  dis 
covers  the  St.  Lawrence,  n;  makes 
an  unsuccessful  settlement  at 
Quebec,  18. 

Cass,  Lewis,  nominated  for  President, 
but  defeated,  548. 

Castine  (kas-teen'),  Me.,  capture  of 
an  American  fleet  at,  243. 

Catholics,  Roman,  formation  of  a  col 
ony  for,  85;  ill-treatment  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  in  Maryland,  88. 

Cavaliers,  a  name  applied  to  the 
king's  friends,  41. 

Cavite  (ka-ve-ta'),  881. 

Cayugas  (ka-yoo'gaz),  an  Indian  tribe 
of  New  York,  3. 

Cebu   (sa-boo'),  900. 

Cedar  Creek,  battle  of,  705. 

Cemeteries,   National,   747. 

Census,  (first,  1790,)  313;  (second, 
1800,)  324;  (third.  1810,)  353; 
(fourth,  1820,)  421;  (fifth,  1830,)  452; 
(sixth,  1840,)  490;  (seventh,  1850,) 
561;  (eighth,  1860,)  588;  (ninth, 
1870,)  782;  (tenth,  1880,)  804,  note; 
(eleventh,  1890,)  847. 

Centennial  anniversary  of  American 
independence,  787. 

Central  Pacific  Railway,  890. 

Central   Park,  opening  of,   595. 

Cerro  Gordo  (seR'Ro  goR'do),  battle 
of,  536. 


Cervera    (thar-va'ra),   Admiral,   882. 

Chad's   Ford,   battle  of,   216. 

Champlain,  Lake,  discovery  of,  136; 
importance  of,  378;  battle  of,  382. 

Champlain  (sham-plane),  Samuel  de, 
a  French  explorer,  19;  discovers 
Lake  Champlain,  136. 

Chancellorsville,   battle  of,  674. 

Chapultepec  (chah-pool'ta-pek),  bat 
tle  of,  541. 

Charles   I.,   King,   40,  41. 

Charles    II.,    King,   42. 

Charleston,  Mass.,  settlement  of,  48; 
destruction  of  the  town  by  the 
British,  196. 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  settlement  of,  97; 
attacked  by  the  Spaniards,  101 ;  by 
the  British,  203;  captured  by  the 
British,  247;  retained  by  the  British 
until  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  254,  263;  evacuated  by  the 
British,  264;  importance  in  1790, 
288;  nullification  as  applied  to 
Charleston  harbor,  476-7;  decay  of 
its  commerce,  596;  United  States 
forces  in  Charleston  harbor,  617-, 
importance  of  Charleston  to  the 
Confederates,  652;  evacuated  by 
the  Confederates,  728-9. 

Charlottesville,  Va.,  occupied  by 
Sheridan,  731. 

Charters  given  by  the  king  to  the 
colonies,  35. 

Charter  Oak,  61. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  a  Republican  Sena 
tor,  558. 

Chasseur  (shas-sur'),  the,  an  Ameri 
can  privateer,  376. 

Chattahoochee  (chat  -  ta  -  hoo'chee) 
River,  the,  crossed  by  Johnston  and 
Sherman,  706. 

Chattanooga  (chat-ta-noo'ga),  Tenn., 
importance  of,  685;  evacuated  by 
the  Confederates,  685;  besieged  by 
the  Confederates,  686-7. 

Chauncey  (chan'si),  Commodore 
Isaac,  in  command  on  Lake  On 
tario,  380. 

Cherbourg  (sharc-booR'g),  sea-battle 
off,  720. 

Cherokees  (cher'o-keez),  an  Indian 
tribe,  3;  difficulties  with  the  State 
of  Georgia,  431;  removal,  463. 

Cherry  Valley,  N.  Y.,  destroyed  by 
Tories  and  Indians,  232. 

Cherub,  the,  aids  in  capturing  the 
Essex,  373. 

Chesapeake  (ches'a-peek)  Bay,  en 
tered  by  Captain  Newport,  31;  im 
portance  to  commerce,  89;  used  by 
Howe  as  a  road  to  Philadelphia, 
215;  by  Washington  as  a  road  to 
Yorktown,  257;  arrival  of  the 
French  fleet  in,  258;  used  by  the 
British  as  a  naval  station,  383. 

Chesapeake,  the,  insulted  by  a  British 
war-vessel,  344;  captured  by  the 
Shannon,  372. 

Chester,  Pa.,  settlement  of,   123. 

Chicago  (shi-kaw'go),  111.,  sudden  rise 


582 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Chicago — Continued. 
of  the  place,  449;  not  on  the  maps 
in  1830,  451,  589;  great  fire  in,  784; 
railroad  riots  in,  806;  anarchist 
riots,  829;  World's  Fair,  845;  rail 
road  strike,  858;  trust  conference, 
891. 

Chickahominy  (chik-a-hom'in-i)  Riv 
er,  the,  its  interference  with  Mc- 
Clellan's  plan  of  campaign,  659-60. 

Chickamauga  (chik-o-maw'ga),  battle 
of,  685;  rendezvous  in  war  with 
Spain,  880. 

Chickasaws  (chik'a-sawz),  Indian 
tribe,  3. 

Chihuahua  (che-wah'wah),  Mex.,  oc 
cupied  by  Doniphan,  529,  531. 

Chillicothe   (chil-11-koth'e),   6.,  314. 

Chinese   immigration,   815,   829,   851. 

Chippewa  (chip'pe-waw),  battle  of.  392. 

Choctaws  (chok'tawz),  an  Indian 
tribe,  3. 

Chouteau,  Pierre  (pe-ar?'  shoo-to'), 
his  long  life  in  St.  Louis,  155,  note. 

Christina  (kris-tee'na),  Swedish  set 
tlement  at,  29. 

Chrysler's  (kris'ler's)  Farm,  battle 
of,  363. 

Church,  Benjamin,  a  Plymouth  sol 
dier,  69. 

Churubusco  (choo-roo-boos'ko),  bat 
tle  of,  539. 

Cincinnati  (sin-sin-nah'ti),  O.,  settle 
ment  of,  292;  first  newspaper  in, 
314;  riots  in,  823. 

Cities  in  1790,  288;  in  1830,  450;  in 
1860,  595. 

Civil  Service,  the,  Jackson's  degrada 
tion  of  it,  467;  Civil  Service  law 
passed,  467;  condition  under  Gar- 
field,  819;  under  Cleveland,  864; 
under  McKinley,  892,  906. 

Clarendon  Colony,  the,  comes  from 
Barbadoes  to  North  Carolina,  93; 
removes  to  South  Carolina,  97. 

Clarke,  Gen.  George  Rogers,  conquers 
Illinois  for  Virginia,  235. 

Clay,  Henry,  leader  of  the  House, 
412;  aids  the  Missouri  Compro 
mise,  418;  nominated  for  President 
in  1824,  but  defeated,  427;  a  lead 
ing  supporter  of  the  "  American 
System,"  434;  his  rank  as  an  ora 
tor,  459;  in  politics,  471;  nominated 
for  President  in  1832,  but  defeated, 
473;  nominated  for  President  in 
1844,  but  defeated,  515;  aids  the 
Compromise  of  1850,  554;  death, 
558. 

Claytpn-Bulwer  treaty,   the,   896. 
Clearing-house,   the,   565. 
Clermont,   the,   337. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  nominated  and 
elected  President,  826,  828;  his  first 
annual  message,  837;  renominated 
and  defeated,  840;  re-elected,  854; 
Venezuelan  message,  861 ;  extends 
the  merit  system,  864;  negotiates 
the  arbitration  treaty,  867. 
Cleveland,  O.,  settlement,  314. 


Clinton,  Gen.  Sir  Henry,  lands  at 
Boston,  194;  fails  to  relieve  Bur- 
goyne,  222;  succeeds  Howe  at  Phil 
adelphia,  228;  retreats  to  New 
York  City,  fighting  at  Monmouth 
Court-house,  228;  captures  Charles 
ton,  247;  returns  to  New  York 
City,  248;  orders  Cornwallis  to 
Yorktown,  255;  is  outgeneralled  by 
Washington,  257;  orders  the  attack 
on  New  London,  259. 

Clinton,  DeWitt,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  but  defeated,  351;  pushes 
through  the  construction  of  the  Erie 
Canal,  424. 

Clinton,  George,  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent,  339;  re-elected,  346. 

Coal.      See   Anthracite. 

Coast   Survey,  455. 

Cockburn  (kd'burn),  Admiral,  plun 
ders  the  Atlantic  coast,  388. 

Cold   Harbor,   battle  of,   702,   706. 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent,  768. 

Colleges,  the  first  six,  158,  note;  the 
next  three,  187;  in  1830,  455;  in 
1860,  593. 

Collins,  Capt.  N.  B.,  in  command  of 
the  IVachusett,  720. 

Colonization,    26. 

Colorado,  discovery  of  gold  in,  590; 
admission,  786. 

"  Color  line,"  764. 

Columbia   College,    158. 

Columbia  River,  discovered  by  an 
American  vessel,  335;  claimed  as  a 
southwest  boundary  for  British 
America,  523. 

Columbia,  S.  C.,  occupied  by  the 
Union  forces  and  burned,  728. 

Columbia,  the,  makes  the  first  Ameri 
can  voyage  around  the  world,  312. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  his  efforts  to 
accomplish  his  great  design,  5;  his 
discovery  of  land  across  the  At 
lantic,  6;  subsequent  voyages  and 
death,  8. 

Commerce,  early  commerce,  131;  the 
attempt  of  Parliament  to  regulate 
by  the  Navigation  Acts,  67;  fail 
ure  of  the  Navigation  Acts,  163; 
commercial  taxation  by  Parliament, 
168;  commercial  resistance,  177  (see 
Revolution,  American) ;  commerce 
under  the  Confederation,  275;  under 
the  Constitution,  281 ;  English  in 
terferences  with  American  com 
merce,  309,  343;  increase  of  Ameri 
can  commerce,  312,  333;  French 
interferences  with  American  com 
merce,  318;  the  Barbary  States' 
interferences  with  American  com 
merce,  341 ;  the  embargo  policy 
of  prohibiting  commerce,  345;  its 
failure,  349;  war  against  Great 
Britain,  351;  decay  of  commerce  in 
1815,  and  immediate  revival,  406; 
French  injuries  paid  for,  464;  com 
merce  in  1860,  588;  injury  to  com- 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


583 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Commerce — Continued. 
merce    by    Confederate   privateering, 
672,   696,   720;     revival   of   commerce, 
780;    interstate,  832. 

Commission,    Electoral,   800-2. 

Commission,  Interstate  Commerce, 
832. 

Commission,   Tariff,  825. 

Committees  of  Correspondence,   179. 

Common  schools.      See  Public  schools. 

"  Common  Sense,"  title  of  Paine's 
pamphlet  in  favor  of  independence, 
204. 

Commons,  House  of,  claims  taxing 
power  in  England,  40;  in  the  col 
onies,  160  (see  Parliament). 

Commonwealth,  the  English,  41. 

Compromises,  the  Missouri  Compro 
mise  passed,  418;  unsuccessful  at 
tempt  to  apply  its  principle  to  the 
Mexican  acquisition,  545;  results 
of  the  Compromise,  559";  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise  repealed,  575-6; 
the  repeal  sustained  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  599-600;  the  tariff  compro 
mise  of  1833,  478;  the  Compromise 
of  1850,  555. 

Concessions,  the,  the  charter  of  New 
Jersey,  120. 

Concord   (kong'kurd),   Mass.,    180-1. 

Confederate  States,  the,  organized  in 
1861,  614;  declares  war  against  the 
United  States,  625;  enlarged  by  new 
secessions,  628;  its  difficulties,  637; 
progress  of  the  war,  740-5;  distress 
within  the  Confederacy,  668,  690, 
719,  721;  downfall  of  the  Confeder 
acy,  733;  its  armed  forces,  746; 
loss  in  men,  747;  in  money,  748. 

Confederation,  The.  See  Articles  of 
Confederation. 

Confirmation  by  the  Senate,  282. 

Congress  of  the  United  States, 
powers,  281-3;  first  meets  and  counts 
the  electoral  votes,  294;  organizes 
the  government  by  legislation,  297; 
proposes  twelve  Amendments,  297; 
character  of  the  laws  passed,  298; 
charters  the  first  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  300;  begins  taxation  by  ex 
cise,  299,  307;  attitude  towards  sla 
very,  301 ;  authorizes  hostilities 
against  France,  319;  passes  the 
Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  321;  comes 
under  the  control  of  the  Republi 
cans,  331;  passes  the  Embargo  Act 
(see  Commerce),  345;  passes  the 
Non-Intercourse  Act,  346;  revives 
the  Non-Intercourse  Act  against 
Great  Britain,  349;  declares  war 
against  Great  Britain,  351;  be 
comes  more  disposed  to  favor  the 
navy,  369;  charters  the  second 
Bank  of  the  United  States,  408; 
the  two  sections  in  Congress,  416, 
435,  508;  passes  the  Missouri  Com 
promise,  418;  receives  Lafayette, 
421 ;  appropriates  money  for  in 
ternal  improvements,  422;  begins 


Congress — Continued. 
the  National  Road,  423;  adopts  a 
policy  of  Protection,  426;  carries  it 
further,  434;  divides  surplus  reve 
nue  among  the  States,  453;  as 
serted  influence  of  the  Bank  on 
Congress,  468;  renews  charter  of 
the  Bank,  but  is  defeated  by  the 
veto,  469;  Congress  and  Protection, 
470,  474;  passes  Compromise  Tariff 
of  1833,  490;  special  session  of  1837, 
478;  passes  Sub-Treasury  law,  488; 
attempt  to  suppress  antislavery 
petitions  to  Congress,  494;  special 
session  of  1841,  500;  passes  a  third 
Bank  charter,  but  is  defeated  by  the 
veto,  501 ;  quarrels  with  the  Presi 
dent,  501 ;  passes  the  Tariff  of  1842, 
501;  passes  the  resolution  annexing 
Texas,  516;  abandons  Protection 
and  passes  a  revenue  tariff,  521;  de 
clares  war  against  Mexico,  527;  dis 
cusses  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  546; 
and  the  admission  of  California, 
553  i  passes  the  Compromise  of  1850, 
554-5;  new  leaders  appear  in  Con 
gress,  558;  Congress  orders  surveys 
for  a  Pacific  Railroad,  562;  repeals 
the  Missouri  Compromise  by  pass 
ing  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  574; 
the  Republican  party  appears  in 
Congress,  576;  Congress  discusses 
Kansas  affairs,  580;  its  relations  to 
the  Supreme  Court,  599;  remains 
inactive  through  the  secession  win 
ter,  618;  special  session  of  1861 
votes  men  and  money  for  the  war, 
631;  orders  the  issue  of  bonds  and 
legal-tender  paper  money  in  1862, 
670;  establishes  a  national  banking 
system  in  1863,  670;  returns  to  the 
protective  system,  691 ;  orders  a 
draft,  693;  passes  the  i3th  Amend 
ment,  756;  refuses  to  admit  mem 
bers  from  the  seceding  States,  758; 
is  controlled  by  a  two-thirds  Re 
publican  majority,  759;  adopts  a 
plan  of  reconstruction,  760-1;  read 
mits  the  reconstructed  States,  762; 
passes  the  i4th  Amendment,  763; 
quarrels  with  the  President,  765; 
passes  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act, 
766;  assists  the  Pacific  Railroad, 
783;  passes  the  isth  Amendment, 
789;  investigates  the  Credit  Mobi- 
lier  scandals,  794;  asserts  a  right  to 
decide  disputes  about  electoral 
votes,  799;  passes  the  Electoral 
Commission  Act,  800;  demonetizes 
silver,  811;  remonetizes  silver,  812; 
orders  specie  payments  to  be  re 
sumed,  813;  engages  in  conflicts 
with  the  President,  816;  passes  the 
Civil  Service  Reform  Act,  819;  fails 
to  suppress  polygamy,  822;  orders 
appointment  of  a  Tariff  Commis 
sion,  825;  demonetizes  silver,  856; 
passes  the  Wilson  bill,  859;  passes 
the  Dingley  bill,  870;  declares  war 


5^4 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Congress — Continued. 
against  Spain,  879;  passes  the  War 
Revenue  Act,  886;  passes  a  joint 
resolution  annexing  Hawaii,  888; 
authorizes  an  appropriation  for  in 
vestigation  of  Nicaragua  canal 
routes,  895;  establishes  a  form  of 
government  for  Porto  Rico,  903; 
passes  the  Porto  Rican  Tariff  Act, 
904. 

Connecticut  (kon-net'l-kut),  part  of 
the  Plymouth  grant,  33;  history,  57; 
its  western  claims,  271 ;  they  are 
transferred  to  the  United  States, 
273- 

Constellation,  the,  captures  L'lnsur- 
gente,  319. 

Constitution,  the,  chased  by  the  Brit 
ish,  366;  captures  the  Guerrierc, 
367;  the  Java,  368;  the  Cyane  and 
Levant,  375. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  its 
formation,  279;  its  terms,  280-4;  its 
ratification,  286;  its  inauguration, 
294  (see  Amendments). 

"  Continental,"  meaning  of  the  term, 
176,  note  i,  233. 

Continental  Congress,  first  meeting, 
176-7;  second  meeting,  191-3;  resists 
Parliament  by  force,  191 ;  recom 
mends  the  colonies  to  become 
States,  204;  adopts  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  205;  retires  to 
Baltimore,  211;  to  Lancaster  and 
York,  217;  issues  paper  money, 
233;  begins  to  lose  public  respect, 
234;  has  difficulties  with  the  army, 
239;  fails  to  form  a  navy,  241;  its 
work  in  the  war,  269;  gives  way  to 
the  Confederation,  270  (see  Articles 
of  Confederation). 

Contract  Labor  Act,  829. 

Contreras  (kon-tra'rahs),  battle  of,  539. 

Convention,   Federal,  279. 

Cooper,  J.  Fenimore,  his  literary 
work,  457. 

Copley,  John  Singleton,  a  painter, 
particularly  excellent  in  portraits, 
187. 

Copper,  in  Connecticut  and  New 
Jersey,  511;  discovery  of  the  Lake 
Superior  copper  region,  512. 

Corinth  (kor'inth),  Miss.,  captured  by 
Halleck,  643;  defended  by  Grant,  646. 

Cornwallis  (korn-wol'Iis),  Lord,  in 
command  of  the  British  in  New 
Jersey,  210;  beaten  at  Trenton  and 
Princeton,  212;  in  command  in 
South  Carolina,  248;  defeats  Gates 
at  Camden,  249;  chases  Greene 
across  North  Carolina,  251;  fights, 
a  drawn  battle  at  Guilford  Court 
house,  253;  retires  to  Wilmington, 
253;  moves  north  into  Virginia,  255; 
caught  at  Yorktown  by  the  French 
and  Americans,  258;  surrenders, 
261;  results  of  the  surrender,  262; 
centennial  anniversary  of  the  sur 
render,  820. 


Coronado  (ko-ro-nah'do),  an  early 
Spanish  explorer,  16. 

Corpus  Chrisii  (kor'pus  kris'ti),  Tex., 
524- 

Cortereal  (kor-ta-ra-ahl'),  a  Portu 
guese  sailor,  12. 

Cotton,  John,  a  Massachusetts  min 
ister,  50. 

Cotton,  little  profit  in  its  cultivation 
before  1793,  316;  invention  of  the 
saw-gin  by  Whitney,  316;  cotton 
in  South  Carolina,  99;  cotton  crop 
of  1860,  588;  "  King  Cotton,"  597; 
importance  of  the  cotton  supply 
during  the  Civil  War,  671 ;  effect  of 
the  blockade,  690;  cotton  under  free 
labor,  824. 

Courts,   Federal,  283,  298. 

Cowpens  (kow'penz),  battle  of  the, 
251- 

Crawford,  William  H.,  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  412;  nominated  foi 
President,  but  defeated,  427. 

Credit  Mobilier  (kra'de  mo-be'le-a), 
the  construction  company  of  the 
Pacific  Railroad,  794. 

Creeks,  an  Indian  tribe,  3;  hostile  to 
the  United  States,  394;  make  war, 
395;  overthrown  by  Jackson,  396; 
effects  on  settlement,  405. 

Criminals,  their  extradition,  502. 

Croghan  (kro'hon),  Lieut.  George, 
his  defence  of  Fort  Stephenson, 
360. 

Cromwell  (krum'well),  Oliver,  Pro 
tector  of  England,  41. 

Croton   Aqueduct,   450. 

Crown  Point,  N.  Y.,  held  by  the 
French,  146;  taken  by  the  British, 
150. 

Crystal   Palace,  the,  564. 

Cuba,  attempts  to  obtain  it  from 
Spain,  570;  the  Ostend  manifesto, 
570;  the  Virginias  affair,  779;  the 
revolt,  863;  relations  with  the  United 
States  grow  acute,  873;  refuses 
Spain's  offer  of  autonomy,  874;  pro 
posed  armistice,  878;  military  op 
erations  in,  882,  884;  freed  from 
Spanish  sovereignty,  885;  passes 
formally  under  the  control  of  the 
United  States,  902;  internal  changes 
and  improvements,  902;  the  Cuban 
army  disbanded,  902;  promised  in 
dependence  by  the  Republican  plat 
form  of  1900,  906. 

Cuban  Junta,   the,  876,  878. 

Cuban   Relief  Committee,  the,  875. 

Cumberland  Island,  Ga.,  Cockburn's 
headquarters,  388. 

Cumberland,    Md.,    423. 

Cumberland,  the,  sunk  by  the  Mcrri- 
ntac,  650. 

Currency,    Paper.     See   Paper   Money 

Currency    reform,    889. 

Gushing  (koosh'ing),  Lieut.  Wm.  B., 
blows  up  the  Albemarle,  716. 

Custer,  Gen.  George  A.,  killed  by  In 
dians,  785. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


585 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Cyane    (si'ane),    the,    captured    by    the 

Constitution,   375. 
Cyclones,  821. 

DADE'S  Massacre,  463. 

Daiquiri    (day-ke-re'),  882. 

Dallas,  battle  of,  706. 

Dallas,  George  M.,  elected  Vice- 
President,  515. 

Dalton  (dawl'tun),  Ga.,  held  by  John 
ston,  697;  taken  by  Sherman,  706. 

Dana,  Richard  H.,  an  early  American 
poet,  457. 

Danbury  (dan'ber-ri),  Conn.,  de 
stroyed  by  the  British,  214. 

Daniel,  Wm.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  826,  note. 

Dare,  Virginia,  first  child  born  of 
English  parents  in  America,  23. 

Darien   (da-ri-en'),  Ga.,   104. 

Dartmouth  College  founded,  187. 

Davenport  (dS.v'en-port),  John,  a 
founder  of  New  Haven,  60. 

Davis,  Gen.  Geo.  W.,  Governor-Gen 
eral  of  Porto  Rico,  903. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  a  Southern  leader, 
558;  President  of  the  Confederate 
States,  614;  removes  Johnston,  708; 
is  compelled  to  recall  him,  728; 
captured  by  the  United  States,  732, 
note. 

Dayton,  Wm.  L.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  582. 

Deane  (deen),  Silas,  envoy  to  France, 
224,  note. 

Dearborn  (deer'burn),  Gen.  Henry,  in 
command  in  northeastern  New 
York,  357;  fails  in  an  invasion  of 
Canada,  362. 

Debt,  imprisonment  for,  cruelty  of 
the  system,  288;  its  general  aban 
donment,  461. 

Debt  of  Great   Britain,  265. 

Debt  of  the  United  States,  hopeless 
ness  of  paying  it  under  the  Con 
federation,  275;  provided  for  in 
1790,  299;  nearly  paid  off  in  1809,  333; 
anxiety  of  the  Republicans  to  pay 
it  off,  344;  increase  on  account  of 
the  War  of  1812,  407;  paid  off 
in  1835,  453;  Civil  War  debt  put 
into  bonds  and  paper  money,  670; 
amount  at  the  end  of  the  war,  748; 
promptness  in  beginning  to  pay  it 
off,  769;  interest  rate  reduced  by 
refunding,  814;  the  general  reduc 
tion  of  the  debt,  825,  857. 

Decatur  (de-ka'tur),  Commodore  Ste 
phen,  burns  the  Philadelphia,  342; 
in  command  of  the  United  States, 
368;  forces  the  Barbary  States  to 
conclude  peace  without  payment  of 
tribute,  404. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  its 
adoption,  205;  its  terms,  206;  its 
effect  on  France,  226;  its  author 
ship,  432;  its  hundredth  anniver 
sary,  787. 

Delaware    (del'a-ware),   settled  by  the 


Delaware — Continued. 
Swedes,  29;  taken  by  the  Dutch,  29; 
taken  by  the  English  from  the 
Dutch,  34;  bought  by  Penn,  121; 
history,  128;  its  western  boundary, 
271;  a  "small"  State,  279;  freedom 
from  secessionists,  626;  trusts  in,  891. 

Delaware  River,  the,  crossed  by 
Washington,  210;  obstructed  by  the 
Americans  to  defend  Philadelphia, 
2I5- 

Democratic  Party,  the,  known  at  first 
as  the  Republican  Party  (see  Re 
publican  Party  of  1792),  304,  note; 
upholds  state  sovereignty,  328; 
often  known  as  the  Democratic 
Party  after  the  War  of  1812,  409; 
regularly  called  so  after  1828,  437; 
supports  Jackson,  438;  defeated  in 
1840,  498;  successful  in  1844,  515; 
gets  control  of  the  government  and 

?uts  an  end  to  Protection,  521;  de- 
eated  in  1848,  548;  the  only  great 
party  left  entire  by  slavery,  560; 
successful  in  1852,  563;  how  it  was 
held  together,  573;  supports  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  574;  part  of 
its  Northern  members  go  into  the 
Republican  Party  (see  Republican 
Party  of  1846),  576;  successful  in 
1856,  582;  Northern  members  re 
fuse  to  support  the  Dred  Scott  de 
cision,  602;  splits  into  two  parts, 
608;  defeated  in  1860,  609;  opposes 
the  management  of  the  war,  and  is 
defeated  in  1864,  723;  supports 
Johnson,  759;  is  defeated  in  1868, 
768;  adopts  the  Liberal  Republican 
ticket  in  1872,  and  is  defeated,  796; 
its  nominations  in  1876,  797;  in  con 
trol  of  Congress,  816;  defeated  in 
1880,  817;  successful  in  1884,  826; 
defeated  in  1888,  840;  successful  in 
1892,  854;  defeated  in  1896,  865;  in 
1900,  906. 

Demonetization  of  silver,  811. 

Denys  (da-nese'),  an  early  French 
explorer,  n. 

Deposits,  removal  of,  469. 

Detroit,  Mich.,  an  early  French  set 
tlement,  139;  transferred  to  the 
English,  152;  transferred  to  the 
United  States,  309;  captured  by  the 
British,  356;  recaptured  by  the 
Americans,  361. 

Dewey,  Admiral  Geo.,  at  the  battle 
of  Manila  Bay,  881;  shares  control 
of  Philippine  affairs  with  Gen. 
Otis,  900;  candidate  for  the  presi 
dency,  906. 

Dieskau  (di-es-ko'),  Baron,  in  com 
mand  of  a  French  force,  146. 

Dingley,   Nelson,  870,   886. 

Dinwiddie  (din-wid'dl),  Gov.,  of  Vir 
ginia,  142. 

District  of  Columbia  (see  Capital), 
slavery  in  the,  553,  555- 

Donelson,  Andrew  J.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  582. 


586 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Dpniphan  (don'I-fan),  Col.,  his  march  I 
into  Mexico,  529. 

Dorchester  (dor'ches-ter)  Heights, 
198. 

Dorr   Rebellion,   513. 

Douglas  (dug'las),  Stephen  A.,  a 
Northern  Democratic  leader,  573; 
introduces  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill,  574;  separates  from  the  South 
ern  Democrats,  602;  nominated  for 
President,  608;  is  defeated,  609; 
his  senatorial  Campaign  against 
Lincoln,  620. 

Dover,  N.   H.,  55. 

Downie  (dow'ni),  Commodore  G.,  in 
command  of  the  British  fleet  on 
Lake  Champlain,  382. 

Draft,  the,  693. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  an  American 
poet,  457. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  an  early  English 
explorer,  15;  fights  the  Spaniards,  20. 

Dred  Scott  case,  the,  600-2. 

Drunkenness,  its  former  prevalence 
in  America,  460. 

Duluth   (doo-looth'),  Minn.,  783. 

EAGAN,  C.  P.,  Commissary-General, 
899- 

Early,  Gen.  Jubal  A.,  sent  by  Lee  to 
raid  Washington,  703;  defeats  Sheri 
dan's  army  at  Cedar  Creek,  but  is 
defeated  by  Sheridan,  705. 

East    Florida,    154. 

East  Indies,   12. 

Eaton,  Theophilus,  one  of  the  found 
ers  of  New  Haven,  60. 

Eckford,  Henry,  an  American  ship 
builder,  380. 

Education.  See  Public  Schools; 
Normal  Schools;  Colleges. 

Elba,  the  island  to  which  Napoleon  ' 
was  banished,  397. 

Elberon  (el'be-ron),  a  New  Jersey 
watering-place,  818. 

Electors,  their  duty  to  choose  the 
President  and  Vice- President,  282; 
their  first  meeting,  287;  the  first 
count  of  their  votes,  294;  the  elec 
toral  system  in  general,  295;  how 
it  was  changed  in  1804,  323;  failure 
of  the  electors  to  choose  a  Presi 
dent  in  1824,  427;  dispute  over  their 
votes  in  1876,  798;  how  the  dispute 
was  settled,  799-801,  831. 

Electricity,  application  to  telegraph 
ing,  510;  to  the  telephone,  light, 
heat,  and  machinery,  805. 

Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  settlement,   119. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  favors  Raleigh,  23. 

Elkton,  MdT,  Howe  disembarks  there, 
215;  Washington  embarks  there  for 
Yorktown,  258. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  192. 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  the,  its  j 
issue  and  terms,  669;  it's  influence  j 
on  foreign  affairs,  671 ;  completed  I 
by  the  i3th  Amendment,  757. 


Embargo,  the,  its  passage  and  failure, 
345  (see  Commerce). 

Emerson,  Ralph  \Valdo,  his  literary 
work,  592. 

Endicott  (en'di-kut),  John,  a  Massa 
chusetts  leader,  50. 

England,  refuses  to  help  Columbus, 
5;  sends  Cabot,  who  claims  part  oi 
North  America  for  her,  10;  pre 
liminary  failures,  20,  23-4;  organizes 
two  colonization  companies,  25; 
how  her  colonies  came  to  lie  to 
gether,  27;  struggle  between  the 
king  and  the  Parliament,  40;  the 
Commonwealth,  41 ;  the  Restora 
tion,  42;  the  first  successful  Eng 
lish  settlement,  31;  her  relations 
with  her  colonies,  36-8;  her  en 
couragement  of  the  slave-trade,  39; 
her  passage  of  restrictions  on  co 
lonial  commerce,  67;  her  wars  with 
France  after  the  Restoration,  71; 
how  England  seized  the  middle  At 
lantic  coast,  109  (see  Great  Britain). 

English,  Wm.  H.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  817. 

Enterprise,  the,  captures  the  Boxci , 
370. 

Epervier  (a-per've-a),  the,  captured 
by  the  Peacock,  374. 

Era  of  Good   Feeling,  413,  433. 

Ericsson  (er'ik-sen),  John,  invents 
the  screw  propeller,  447;  builds  the 
Monitor,  649. 

Erie  Canal,  424. 

Erie,   Lake,   battle  of,   381. 

Erie,  Pa.,  a  French  fort,  142;  Perry's 
ship  yard,  381. 

Essex,  the,  captures  the  Alert,  366; 
captured  by  the  Phoebe  and  Cherub, 

Estaing,  Count  d'  (des-tan(g)'),  sent 
to  the  United  States  in  command 
of  a  French  fleet,  226;  aids  in  the 
attack  on-  Savannah,  244. 

Ether,  its  application  to  surgery, 
5i7- 

Europe,  why  its  people  turned  to  dis 
covery,  4;  what  nations  of  Europe 
took  part  in  the  discoveries,  12, 
affairs  in  Europe,  40-4  (see  Great 
Britain,  France,  Spain,  Austria, 
Portugal);  immigration  from 
Europe  after  1848,  572,  829. 

Eutaw  (u'taw)  Springs,  battle  of, 
254- 

Everett  (ev'er-et),  Edward,  nominated 
for  Vice-President,  608. 

Exchange  of  prisoners  during  the 
Civil  War,  725. 

Executive  Department,  its  duties  282; 
the  succession  in  case  of  death  or 
disability,  818,  831. 

Exhibitions,  World's,  Crystal  Palace, 
564;  Centennial,  787;  Southern, 
824;  World's  Fair,  845. 

Expansion,  905-6. 

Expense  of  wars,  of  Revolutionary 
War,  265;  of  the  War  of  1812,  407; 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


587 


e  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Expense — Continued. 

of   the   Civil    War,   670,    748,    782;     of 
the   Spanish   War,   879,   886. 

Express  companies,  their  origin,  491. 

Extradition   of  criminals,   502. 

FAIRFIELD,  Conn.,  scene  of  the 
Pequot  defeat,  59. 

Fair  Oaks,  battle  of,  660. 

Falmouth,  Me.,  destroyed  by  the 
British,  203. 

Farewell  Address,  310. 

Farragut  (far'a-gut),  Admiral  David 
G.,  fights  his  way  up  the  Mississippi 
and  takes  New  Orleans,  654-5;  re 
turns  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  655; 
destroys  the  Confederate  fleet  in 
Mobile  Bay,  718. 

Fayetteville  (fa-et'vil),  N.  C,  settle 
ment,  93;  taken  by  Sherman,  728. 

Federal   Convention,   279. 

Federal  Government,  established  by 
the  Constitution,  280;  its  three  de 
partments,  281-3;  its  inauguration, 
294;  its  success,  303;  its  relations 
to  the  States,  475. 

Federal  Hall,  294,  note. 

Federal  Party,  the,  its  origin,  285;  its 
success,  303;  its  purposes,  304;  suc 
cessful  in  1796,  311;  its  great  mis 
take,  321;  defeated  in  1800,  323; 
the  excellence  of  its  work,  331;  loses 
power,  332;  defeated  in  1804,  339;  de 
feated  in  1808,  346;  defeated  in  1812, 
351;  supports  the  Hartford  Con 
vention,  390;  becomes  extinct,  409. 

Federalist,   the,   285. 

Fenians,   the,   791. 

Ferdinand,   king   of   Spain,   8. 

Ferelo  (fu-rfi'lo),  Spanish  explorer,  15. 

Ferguson,  Col.  Patrick,  in  command 
of  the  British  at  King's  Mountain, 
250. 

Filibusters,  their  attacks  on  Cuba  and 
Central  America,  570,  873. 

Filibustering.  841. 

Filipinos  (fil-I-pe'nos),  the,  co-operate 
with  the  Americans,  881;  begin  hos 
tilities  against  the  Americans,  900. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  elected  Vice-Presi 
dent,  548;  succeeds  to  the  Presi 
dency,  557;  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  582. 

Fires,  in  New  York,  450;  in  Chicago 
and  Boston,  784. 

Fisheries,  the  Newfoundland,  dis 
putes  as  to  them,  777. 

Fishing   Creek,   skirmish   at,   250. 

Fisk,  C.  B.,  nominated  for  President, 
840,  note. 

Fitch,  John,  attempts  to  propel  ves 
sels  by  steam,  312. 

Five  Forks,  battle  of,  732. 

Flag,  the,  as  it  appeared  at  Cam 
bridge,  and  its  changes,  197. 

Flamboro'    Head,   242. 

Florida,  its  discovery  and  exploration, 
9;  De  Soto  lands  in  it,  14;  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  English 


Florida — Continued. 
colonies,  30;  not  an  English  colony 
until  1763,  32;  then  transferred  by 
Spain  to  Great  Britain,  154;  British 
troops  from  Florida  attack  Savan 
nah,  244;  transferred  by  Great  Brit 
ain  to  Spain  in  1783,  263;  the  Span 
ish  governors  aid  the  British  in 
1814,  398;  Jackson  seizes  Pensacola, 
414;  Florida  transferred  to  the 
United  States  by  Spain,  414;  ad 
mission,  509;  secedes,  613;  attacked 
by  an  expedition  from  Port  Royal, 
715;  reconstructed  and  readmitted, 
762;  its  electoral  votes  disputed  in 
1876,  798;  its  returning  board,  798. 

Florida,  the,  a  Confederate  privateer, 
672,  696;  captured  by  the  Wachusett, 
720. 

Foote,  Commodore  Andrew  H.,  in 
command  of  the  western  fleet,  640. 

Forrest,  Gen.  N.  B.,  a  Confederate 
cavalry  officer,  717. 

Fort    Brown,   524. 

Fort   Dearborn,  now   Chicago,  449. 

Fort  Donelson,  captured  by  Grant, 
640. 

Fort  Duquesne  (du-kane'),  seized  by 
the  French,  143;  repels  the  British, 
146;  captured  by  the  British,  148. 

Fort  Erie,  captured  by  the  Ameri 
cans,  392;  repels  the  British,  393. 

Fort  Fisher,  its  capture  by  Gen. 
Terry,  716. 

Fort  Frontenac,  now  Kingston,  Can., 
148. 

Fort  Griswold  (griz'wuld),  massacre 
by  Arnold,  259. 

Fort  Henry,  captured  by  gunboats, 
639;  its  garrison  escapes  to  Fort 
Donelson,  640. 

Fort  Jackson,  passed  by  Farragut, 
653;  surrenders,  655. 

Fort  Leavenworth   (lev'n-wurth),  529. 

Fort  McAllister,  taken  by  Gen. 
Hazen,  714. 

Fort  McHenry,  repels  the  British,  387. 

Fort  Meigs  (megz),  repels  the  Brit 
ish,  360. 

Fort  Mims,  scene  of  a  massacre  by 
the  Creeks,  395. 

Fort  Necessity,  surrendered  by 
Washington,  144. 

Fort  Niagara,  captured  by  the  Brit 
ish,  150. 

Fort  Orange,  now  Albany,   117. 

Fort  Pickens,  saved  from  capture  by 
the  Confederates,  617. 

Fort  Pillow,  taken  by  the  Confeder 
ates,  717. 

Fort  Pulaski,  taken  by  Gen.  Gillmore, 
652. 

Fort  St.  Philip,  passed  by  Farragut, 
653;  surrenders,  655. 

Fort  Schuyler,  now  Rome,  N.  Y.,  220. 

Fort  Stephenson,  repulses  the  British, 
360. 

Fort  Sumter,  held  by  the  Union 
forces,  617;  captured  by  the  Con- 


588 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Fort    Sumter — Continued. 

federates,     622;      attacked     by     iron 
clads,  688;     battered   into  ruins,   688. 

Fort  Wagner,  captured  by  Gen.  Gill- 
more,  688. 

Fort  Washington,  captured  by  the 
British,  209. 

Fortress  Monroe,  the  southern  end  of 
the  Union  line  in  Virginia,  629. 

Forts  Mercer  and  Mifflin,  captured  by 
the  British,  217. 

Fort  Wayne,   Ind.,  308. 

France,  early  discoveries  in  Canada, 
ii ;  early  failures  in  attempts  to  col 
onize,  18;  successful  settlement,  19; 
events  in  France  affecting  emigra 
tion,  43;  early  French  wars,  71; 
the  French  strongholds  in  Can 
ada,  72;  influence  of  the  French 
over  the  Indians,  73;  their  claims 
in  New  York,  no;  their  explora 
tions  beyond  Canada,  136;  settle 
ment  within  the  United  States, 
137-8;  their  possessions  in  North 
America  in  1750,  139;  the  weakness 
of  their  empire,  140;  their  efforts  to 
keep  the  English  back  beyond  the 
Alleghanies,  142;  they  capture  Fort 
Duquesne,  143;  and  Fort  Neces 
sity,  144;  France  sends  troops  to 
America,  146;  declares  war  against 
Great  Britain,  147;  loses  Canada, 
152;  gives  up  all  her  American 
possessions  in  1763,  154;  secretly 
aids  the  colonies,  224;  makes  a 
treaty  of  alliance  with  the  United 
States,  226;  sends  a  fleet  and  army 
to  America,  230,  257;  sends  a  fleet 
to  Chesapeake  Bay,  257,  note,  258; 
the  French  forces  aid  in  capturing 
Cornwallis,  260-1;  France  becomes 
a  republic,  305;  demands  aid  from 
the  United  States,  306;  acts  in  an 
unfriendly  manner,  318;  is  answered 
with  war,  319;  Napoleon  concludes 
a  peace,  320;  sells  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States,  334;  oppresses 
American  commerce,  343;  succeeds 
in  bringing  the  United  States  into 
war  with  Great  Britain,  349;  in 
feriority  of  France  to  Great  Britain 
in  naval  warfare,  369;  France  is 
conquered  and  Napoleon  banished, 
397;  pays  for  damages  to  American 
commerce,  464;  refuses  to  intervene 
in  the  Civil  War,  671;  establishes 
an  empire  in  Mexico,  695;  refuses 
to  permit  the  building  of  Con 
federate  iron-clads,  696;  withdraws 
her  troops  from  Mexico,  770. 

Franchise,  the,  during  colonial  times, 
130. 

Franklin,  battle  of,  711. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  proposes  a  plan 
of  union,  145;  agent  of  Massachu 
setts  at  London,  169;  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  192;  and 
of  the  committee  to  draw  up  a 
Declaration  of  Independence,  206; 


Franklin,    Benjamin — Continued. 
envoy  to  France,  224,  note,  225;    fits 
out    war-vessels    from    France,    241; 
obtains  a  fleet  for  Paul  Jones,  242. 

Frazier's  Farm,  battle  of,  663. 

Fredericksburgh,   battle  of,   667. 

Fredericksburgh,  Va.,  667. 

Freedmen,  meaning  of  the  term,  754, 
note;  their  treatment  in  the  South, 
758;  they  are  empowered  to  vote, 
789;  how  they  were  peaceably  pre 
vented  from  voting,  789;  how  they 
were  prevented  by  violence,  790-2; 
their  other  rights  secured  to  them, 
793- 

Freehold,  N.  J.,  scene  of  the  battle  of 
Monmouth  Court-house,  228. 

Free-soil  Party,  its  origin,  547;  its 
vote  falls  off  in  1852,  563;  it  be 
comes  a  part  of  the  Republican 
Party  in  1856,  576. 

Free  Trade,  meaning  of  the  term,  425; 
Congress  abandons  Free  Trade  and 
supports  Protection,  426,  434;  desire 
of  the  South  for  Free  Trade,  446, 
474,  605;  Jackson  is  unable  to  re 
vive  Free  Trade,  470;  the  Demo 
crats  in  1846  re-establish  Free  Trade, 
which  remains  in  force  until  1861, 
521 ;  the  Republicans  in  1861  aban 
don  Free  Trade  and  re-establish 
Protection,  which  still  remains  in 
force,  691,  825,  836;  the  issue  re 
vived,  837;  application  to  Porto 
Rico,  904  (see  Tariff,  Protection, 
American  System). 

Frelinghuysen,  Theodore,  nominated 
for  Vice-President,  515. 

Fremont,  John  C.,  his  explorations 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  503;  aids 
in  the  conquest  of  California,  529; 
nominated  for  President,  but  de 
feated,  582;  a  general  in  the  Union 
army,  635. 

French  and  Indian  War,  its  origin, 
141-2;  first  fighting  of  the  war,  143- 
4;  effects  a  union  of  the  colonies, 
145;  England  and  France  take  part 
in  it,  146-7;  Pitt's  successful  man 
agement,  148;  his  use  of  the  Col 
onies,  149;  capture  of  Quebec,  150-1; 
conquest  of  all  Canada,  152;  peace, 
154;  one  of  its  consequences,  159. 

Friction-matches,  not  in  existence  in 
1790,  288;  invention  of,  448. 

Frobisher  (fro'bish-er),  Martin,  his 
failure  in  Labrador,  10,  20. 

Frolic,  the,  captured  by  the  Wasp, 
368. 

Fuca,  Juan  de  (Hoo-ahn'  da  foo'ka), 
a  Spanish  pilot,  15. 

Fugitive  slaves,  the  constitutional 
provisions  in  regard  to  them,  284; 
the  complaint  of  the  slave  States, 
553;  passage  of  a  Fugitive  Slave 
law,  555;  its  nature  and  effects,  556, 
=^63. 

Fulton,  Robert,  his  application  of 
steam  to  vessels,  337. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


589 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Fundamental  Constitutions  of  Caro 
lina,  the,  91,  note. 

GADSDEN  PURCHASE,  the,  of  territory 
from  Mexico,  544. 

Gage,  Lyman  J.,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  869;  plan  of  currency  re 
form,  889. 

Gage,  Gen.  Thomas,  in  command  of 
the  British  in  Massachusetts,  179. 

Gag-rule,   494. 

Gaines's   Mill,   battle  of,   663. 

Garcia  (gar-se'a),  Gen.  Calixto,  874, 
884. 

Garfield,  James  A.,  elected  President, 
817;  inauguration,  assassination,  and 
death,  818. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  demands 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  462. 

Gas  for  lighting,  not  known  in  1790, 
288;  introduced  in  America,  422. 

Gaspee  (gas-pa'),  the,  taken  by  the 
people  ot  Providence,  171. 

Gates,  Gen.  Horatio,  appointed  in 
place  of  Schuyler,  221 ;  forces  Bur- 
goyne  to  surrender,  222;  takes  all 
the  credit,  223;  is  defeated  at  Cam- 
den  and  succeeded  by  Greene,  249. 

General  Armstrong,  the,  an  American 
privateer,  376. 

Genet  (je-na'),  a  French  envoy  to 
the  United  States,  306. 

Geneva  (je-ne'va),  a  city  of  Switzer 
land,  777. 

Genoa  (jen'o-a),  the  birthplace  of 
Columbus,  5. 

Geological  surveys  begun,  455. 

George  II.,  king  of  Great  Britain,  103. 

Georgia,  an  English  colony  in  Amer 
ica,  32;  under  royal  government,  35; 
its  inception,  103;  settlement,  104; 
slavery,  105;  early  wars,  116;  south 
ern  boundary  extended,  154;  unable 
to  take  part  in  the  first  Continental 
Congress,  176;  conquered  by  the 
British,  244;  cruelly  treated,  246; 
evacuated,  264;  western  claims,  271; 
cedes  them  to  the  United  States. 
273;  difficulties  with  the  Indians, 
431,  463;  secedes,  613;  crossed  by 
Sherman,  713-4;  refuses  to  accept 
the  first  terms  of  reconstruction, 
762;  is  reconstructed  and  read 
mitted,  788. 

Georgia,  the,  a  Confederate  privateer, 
696;  captured  by  the  Niagara,  720. 

Germantown,   battle  of,   216. 

Germany,  and  the  Philippines,  887;  in 
Samoa,  894. 

Gerry  (ger'rl),  Elbridge,  elected  Vice- 
President,  351. 

Gettysburg?!,  battle  of,  677. 

Ghent   (gent),  treaty  of,  400. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  an  early  Eng 
lish  explorer,  20. 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Quincy  A.,  in  com 
mand  of  the  Union  forces  in  South 
Carolina,  688. 

Glendale,  battle  of,  663. 


Gloucester   (glos'ter),   Mass.,  attacked 

by  the  British,  203. 

i  Gold,  found  in  Virginia,  North  Caro 
lina,  and  Georgia,  511;  in  California, 
549;  excites  an  exodus  to  Califor 
nia,  550;  found  in  Colorado  and 
other  parts  of  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains,  590;  increase  of  production, 
780;  its  comparative  value,  810;  is 
made  the  only  coin,  811;  gold  mono 
metallism,  857;  Gold  Standard  Act, 
889;  in  Klondike,  893;  gold  stand 
ard  in  the  Republican  platform  of 
1900,  906. 

Goldsboro,  battle  of,  729. 

Gomez   (go'mass),   Gen.   Maximo,  874. 

Good    Feeling,    Era   of,   413,    433. 

Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  discovered,  4. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  his  process  of 
vulcanizing  rubber,  491. 

Gorges  (gor'jez),  Sir  Ferdinando,  a 
leader  in  English  colonization,  55. 

Gosnold  (goz'nuld),  Bartholomew,  at 
Buzzard's  Bay,  24. 

Graham,  Wm.  A.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  563. 

Grand  Army,  the,  an  association  of 
veterans,  735,  note. 

Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  681. 

Grant,  Gen.  Ulysses  S.,  at  Belmont, 
635;  in  command  at  Cairo,  639; 
moves  up  the  Tennessee,  640;  takes 
Fort  Donelson,  640;  encamps  at 
Pittsburgh  Landing,  641 ;  fights  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  642;  in  command 
at  Corinth,  646;  at  Holly  Springs, 
679;  fails  in  his  first  advance  on 
Vicksburgh,  646,  680;  his  friend 
ship  with  Sherman,  646;  crosses  the 
Mississippi,  681 ;  recrosses  the  Mis 
sissippi  and  drives  Pemberton  into 
Vicksburgh,  681-2;  captures  Vicks 
burgh,  682;  takes  possession  of 
Arkansas,  683;  called  to  Chatta 
nooga,  687;  relieves  it  from  siege, 
687;  called  to  Virginia  and  put  in 
command  of  all  the  Union  armies, 
698:  acts  in  conjunction  with  Sher 
man,  698;  changes  his  method  of 
fighting,  699;  his  battles  in  the 
Wilderness,  701-2;  crosses  the  James 
River,  704;  besieges  Petersburgn, 
704,  730;  takes  Petersburgh  and 
Richmond,  732;  captures  Lee's 
army,  733;  reviews  his  army  in 
Washington,  735;  elected  President, 
768;  his  fitness  for  the  presidency, 
775;  his  two  Administrations,  780-1; 
confidence  in  his  integrity,  797; 
withdraws  support  from  the  recon 
structed  governments,  802. 

Grasse  (gras),  Count  de,  in  command 
of  the  French  fleet,  243;  aids  in  the 
capture  of  Cornwallis,  261,  289. 

Great  Britain  (see  England,  until  after 
1707),  her  relations  with  her  Ameri 
can  colonies,  129-32;  her  colonies  be 
gin  to  cross  the  Alleghanies,  141; 
sends  troops  to  America,  146;  de- 


59° 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not 


Great  Britain — Continued. 
clares      war      against      France,      147; 
conquers     Canada,      152;       forces     a 
peace  from  France,   154;  unfortunate 
peculiarities  of  her  government,  160; 
attempts    to    regulate    the    colonies, 
163;     passes     the     Stamp     Act,     164; 
taxes   American   commerce,    169;     re 
tains  only  the  tea  tax,  173;    attempts 
to  punish  disobedience,  175;    the  dif 
ficulties    of    the    attempt,    185;     pro 
poses    conciliation,    202;     drives   the 
colonies    into    declaring    their    inde 
pendence,  205;    declares  war  against 
France,  227;    her  warfare  not  a  suc 
cess,   231;     determines   to   attack   the 
Southern      States,      236;      her     com 
merce    injured    by    American    priva 
teers,    240;      agrees    to    a    treaty    of 
peace,    262-3;     evacuates    the    United 
States,    264;     and    the    Northwestern 
forts,  309;    her  wars  with  Napoleon, 
3^>,    333;     her    injuries    to    American 
commerce,    343-4;      loses    her    trade 
with    the    United    States,    345,    349; 
is  involved   in   war  with   the   United 
States    351;     her   navy,  352,   365,   369; 
blockades    the   American    coast,   371, 
383;    plunders  exposed  points,  384-8; 
conquers  Napoleon  and  sends  an  ex 
pedition      against      Louisiana,      397; 
agrees    to    a    treaty    of    peace,    400-1; 
mediates    between    France    and    the 
United    States,    464;     makes    an    ex 
tradition     treaty     with     the     United 
States,  502;    and  settles  a  great  part 
of     the      northern      boundary,      503; 
claims     the     Oregon     country,     504; 
compromises    it,    523,    777;      popula 
tion,    588;     recognizes   the   Confeder 
ate    States    as    a    belligerent    power, 
627,    note;     demands    the    surrender 
of    the    Confederate    commissioners, 
638;     refuses   to   recognize   the   inde 
pendence   of   the   Confederate  States, 
671;     allows    Confederate    agents    to 
build   privateers,   672;     but   not  iron 
clads,      696;       connected      with      the 
United     States     by     telegraph,     772; 
agrees  to  submit  the  Alabama  claims 
to  arbitration,  776-7;    pays  the  dama 
ges  awarded,  777;    receives  damages 
for  the  fisheries,  777;    renewal  of  the 
fisheries    dispute,    834;     her    interest 
in   the   Panama   Canal,   834;     dispute 
about     seals     in     Bering     Sea,     848; 
friendship    in    war   with    Spain,    887; 
interests    in    Samoa,    894;      Clayton- 
Buhver  treaty,  895. 

Greeley,  Horace,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,    796. 
Greenback   Party,  the,  its  objects,  797; 

defeated,   817,   826,   854. 
Greene,  Gen.   Nathaniel,  attacks  New 
port,   230;     succeeds   Gates,   249;     his 
brilliant  success.  254. 
Grenada  (gren-ah'da'),  154. 
Grenville,  George,  his  connection  with    i 
the  Stamp  Act,   164. 


Groton    (grot'n),   Conn.,   scene  of  the 

Pequot   war,   59. 
Guadalupe    Hidalgo    (gwa'da-loop    he- 

aal'goj,  treaty  ot,  543. 
Guam   (gwahm),   the  island   of,   885. 
Guanahani    (gwah-na-hah'ne),    discov 
ered  by  Columbus,  6. 
Guantanamo   (gwahn-tu-nah'mo),  884. 
Guerrillas,  irregular  forces,  647,  683. 
Gitcrricrc     (ger-re-ari-),     sunk     by     the 

Constitution,  367. 
Guiana,   British,  861. 
Guilford  Court-house,  battle  of,  253. 
Gunboats,  the  form   used  in   1812,  352; 

battles  with  blockading  vessels,  371; 

western,  648;    iron-clad  gunboats  on 

the  Atlantic  coast,  651. 

HAGUE  CONFERENCE,  the,  897. 

Hail    Columbia,    a   national    song,    310, 

note. 

Hale,     John     Parker,     an     antislavery 
•  leader  in   Congress,  558;     nominated 

for   President,   563. 
Hale,    Nathan,    hung    as    spy    by    the 

British,  209,  note. 

Halifax,    N.    S.,    British   army   goes   to 
Halifax,   198;   returns  to  attack   New 
York,    207. 
Halleck,     Fitz-Greene,     an     American 

poet,  457. 

Halleck,  Gen.  Henry  W.,  in  command 
of  the  Union  forces  in  Missouri,  635; 
takes  Corinth,  643. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  advocate  of  the 
Constitution,  285;  author  of  the 
Federalist,  285;  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  296;  proposes  a  national 
bank,  300;  financial  measures,  299; 
leader  of  the  Federal  Party,  303; 
shot  by  Burr,  332. 
Hamlin,  Hannibal,  nominated  for 

Vice- President,   608;     elected,   609. 
Hampton    Roads,    battle   of,    651. 
Hampton,    Va.,    destroyed,   384. 
Hancock,  John,  a  Massachusetts  lead 
er,    169;      his    sloop    seized,    171;     a 
member     of    the     Continental     Con 
gress,   192. 

Harlem,   N.    Y.,   skirmish   at,   209. 
Harmar's   defeat,  308. 
Harnden,     \\ .     F.,     and     the    express 

companies,   491. 

Harper's  Ferry,  W.  Va.,  seized  by 
John  Brown,  604;  limit  of  the  Con 
federate  line,  628;  taken  by  Jack 
son,  665. 

Harrisonj  Benjamin,  nominated  and 
elected  President,  840,  842,  844;  de 
feated  for  President,  854. 
Harrison,  Wm.  H.,  fights  the  battle 
of  Tippecanoe,  350;  made  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  West,  358; 
defends  Fort  Meigs,  360;  defeats 
the  British  in  the  battle  of  the 
Thames  and  recovers  the  northwest, 
361;  nominated  for  President,  but 
defeated,  480;  nominated  for  Presi 
dent  and  elected,  498;  death,  500". 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


591 


Hartford,    Conn.,    settlement,    58. 

Hartford   Convention,   390. 

Harvard  College  founded,  75. 

Hatcher's  Run,  part  of  Grant's  line, 
730. 

Hatteras  Inlet,  capture  of  the  forts  at, 
636. 

Havana,  captured  by  the  British  and 
provincials,  153;  scene  of  the  Maine 
explosion,  877;  administrative  meas 
ures  in,  902. 

Havre  de  Grace  (havr  de  grahs),  Md., 
attacked  by  the  British,  384;  on 
the  route  to  Washington,  623. 

Hawaii,  852;  becomes  a  territory  of 
the  United  States,  888. 

Hawthorne,    Nathaniel,   458. 

Hayes,  R.  B.,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  797;  his  election  disputed, 
798;  decided  by  the  Electoral  Com 
mission,  801 ;  prosperity  under  his 
Administration,  804;  disagreements 
with  Congress,  816. 

Ilazen,  Gen.  Wm.  B.,  captures  Fort 
McAllister,  714. 

Helena  (hel-e'na),  Ark.,  attacked  by 
the  Confederates,  683. 

Hendricks,  Thos.  A.,  nominated  for 
Vice- President,  797;  his  election  dis 
puted,  798;  the  Electoral  Commis 
sion  decides  against  him,  801 ;  nomi 
nated  again  and  elected,  826. 

Henry,  Gen.  Guy  V.,  Governor-Gen 
eral  of  Porto  Rico,  903;  is  suc 
ceeded  by  Gen.  Davis,  903. 

Henry,  Patrick,  a  Virginia  orator,  165; 
member  of  the  Continental  Con 
gress,  192. 

Hessians,  the,  dislike  of  the  Ameri 
cans  for  them,  202;  a  Hessian  gar 
rison  captured  at  Trenton,  212. 

Hobart,  Garret  A.,  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent,  865;  died,  869,  note. 

Hobkirk's  Hill,  battle  of,. 254. 

Hoe,  R.  M.,  and  the  printing-press, 
518. 

Holland,  agreement  with  Spain,  12; 
explores  and  colonizes  the  country 
around  the  Hudson  River,  28;  con 
quers  the  Swedes  in  Delaware,  29; 
the  refuge  of  the  English  Puritans, 
45 ;  the  Dutch  government  of  New 
Netherland,  109;  overthrown  by 
the  English,  109;  Holland  recon 
quers  the  country,  but  finally  aban 
dons  it  to  the  English,  in. 

Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  Grant's  head 
quarters,  679;  captured  by  Con 
federate  cavalry,  680. 

Holmes   (homz),   Oliver  Wendell,  458. 

Homestead   riots,   853. 

Hood,  Gen.  J.  B.,  succeeds  Johnston, 
708;  attacks  Sherman,  709;  en 
deavors  to  transfer  the  war  to  Ten 
nessee,  710;  is  beaten  and  loses  his 
army,  711;  consequences  of  his  mis 
take,  712. 

Hooker,  Gen.  Joseph  E.,  succeeds 
Burnside  in  command  of  the  Army 


Hooker,   Gen.  Joseph  E. — Continued. 
of  the   Potomac,  667;     is  defeated  at 
Chancellorsville,  674;    turns  over  the 
command  to  Meadc,  676. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  a  Massachusetts 
minister,  50;  heads  the  emigration 
to  Connecticut,  58. 

Hornet,  the,  captures  the  Peacock,  370; 
and  the  Penguin,  375. 

Horseshoe  Bend,  battle  of,  396. 

Houses,  in  1790,  288;  in  1860  and  since 
that  year,  595. 

Houston  (hews'tun),  Gen.  Sam.,  a 
Texas  leader,  506. 

Howe,  Gen.  Sir  William,  lands  at 
Boston,  194;  commands  in  the  as 
sault  at  Bunker  Hill,  195;  succeeds 
Gage  and  evacuates  Boston,  198; 
lands  on  Staten  Island,  207;  fights 
the  battle  of  Long  Island  and 
drives  Washington  north  to  Peeks- 
kill,  209;  attacks  Philadelphia  by 
sea,  215;  fights  the  battle  of  Chad's 
Ford  and  takes  Philadelphia,  216; 
is  succeeded  by  Clinton,  228. 

Howe,  Elias,  and  the  sewing-machine, 
5i7- 

Hudson,  Henry,  seeks  the  Northwest 
Passage,  21;  explores  the  coast 
from  Hudson  River  to  Chesapeake 
Bay,  28. 

Hudson  River,  the,  why  its  name  was 
given,  28;  its  relation  to  New 
Netherland,  no;  its  importance  to 
New  York  City,  116;  the  British 
hope  to  control  it  through  their 
navy,  207;  crossed  by  Washington 
and  Cornwallis,  210;  forms  part  of 
the  route  to  Canada,  218;  crossed 
by  Burgoyne,  221 ;  steamboats  on 
the  Hudson,  405;  the  "anti-rent" 
disturbances  along  the  river,  514. 

Huguenots  (hu'ge-nots),  driven  from 
France,  43. 

Hulks,   or   prison-ships,   232. 

Hull,  Capt.  Isaac,  in  command  of  the 
Constitution,  366. 

Hull,  Gov.  William,  surrenders  De 
troit  and  Michigan,  356. 

Hunter,  Gen.  David,  in  command  of 
the  Union  forces  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  700;  defeated  and  driven 
into  West  Virginia,  703. 

Hutchinson,  Mrs.  Anne,  banished 
from  Massachusetts,  51. 

Hutchinson,  Thomas,  a  Massachu 
setts  loyalist,  169. 

IBERVILLE,  D'  (de-bar^-veel'),  an  early 

French  explorer,   138. 
Idaho,  admitted   to  the   Union,  846. 
Illinois,    why   its   name   was   given,   3; 

conquered     by     Clarke,     235;       why 


Virginia    claimed 


made    a 


Territory,   405;     admission,   419    (see 

Ordinance  of  1787). 
"  Immunes,"  882. 
Impeachment    of    the    President,    282; 

of   President  Johnson,  767. 


592 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 
The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Imperialism,   905-6. 

Impressment,  right  of,  343,  401. 

Imprisonment  for  debt,  hardship  of 
the  system,  288,  note;  its  gradual 
abolition,  461. 

Income  tax  decision,  860. 

Independence,  Declaration  of.  See 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

Independence,  Mo.,  Mormon  settle 
ment  near,  495. 

Independents,  the,  869. 

Indiana  conquered  by  Clarke  and 
made  a  part  of  Virginia,  235;  why 
Virginia  claimed  it,  271;  made  a 
Territory,  324;  admission,  405  (see 
Ordinance  of  1787). 

Indianapolis  monetary  conference, 
889. 

Indians,  the,  why  the  name  was 
given,  2;  their  tribes  and  names, 
3;  troubles  with  the  Indians  in 
Massachusetts,  47;  in  Connecticut, 
59;  throughout  New  England,  68-9; 
in  New  York  and  Canada,  73;  in 
Virginia,  77,  81;  in  North  Carolina, 
95;  in  South  Carolina,  102;  peace 
with  them  in  Pennsylvania,  123;  the 
northwestern  Indians  join  the 
French,  144;  submit  unwillingly  to 
the  English,  144;  form  a  part  of 
Burgoyne's  army,  218;  sack  ex 
posed  American  villages  and  are 
heavily  punished  by  Sullivan,  232; 
in  Ohio,  308,  314;  take  sides  with 
the  British  in  1812,  350,  361;  their 
cruelty,  359;  troubles  with  the 
Creeks,  394-6;  with  the  Florida  In 
dians,  414,  463;  with  the  Georgia  In 
dians,  431,  463;  with  the  Illinois 
Indians,  463;  with  the  Minnesota 
Indians,  673;  with  the  Modocs  and 
Sioux,  755;  with  the  Nez  Perces, 
807. 

Indian  Territory,  the,  3,  846. 

Indies,  East,  assigned  mainly  to 
Portugal  by  Spain,  12. 

Indies,  West,  explored  by  Columbus, 
6;  French  possessions  in,  230,  266; 
a  refuge  for  many  of  the  Tories, 
261. 

Indigo,  cultivated  in  South  Carolina, 
98,  316. 

Ingersoll,  Jared,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  351,  note. 

Insular  Commission,   Porto   Rico,  903. 

Insurgente,  /'  (lahn(g)  -  sur  -  zhahnt')> 
captured  by  the  Constellation,  319. 

"  Insurgents,"  and  Porto  Rican  tariff, 
904. 

Insurrection,  in  Massachusetts,  276; 
power  of  Congress  to  suppress,  281 ; 
the  Whiskey  Insurrection,  307. 

Insurrection,  negro,  in  South  Caro 
lina,  99;  in  New  York,  115;  in 
Virginia,  462;  the  general  Southern 
feeling,  492,  603;  John  Brown's,  604. 

Interest,  reduction  of,  814. 

Interior,  Department  of  the,  estab 
lishment  of,  296,  520. 


Internal  Improvements.  See  Ameri 
can  System. 

International    Copyright,   848. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  832. 

Iowa,  part  of  the  Louisiana  pur 
chase,  334;  admission,  522. 

Ireland,  771,  772. 

Iron,  iron-mines  of  Pennsylvania  lit 
tle  known  in  1790,  291 ;  in  New 
Jersey,  511. 

Iron-clad  vessels,  used  during  the 
Civil  War  on  the  western  rivers, 
648;  previously  built  as  experi 
ments  by  Great  Britain  and  France, 
649;  the  first  battle  of  iron-clads, 
650-1;  introduced  into  all  navies, 
651;  at  New  Orleans,  654-5;  used 
in  attacking  Fort  Sumter,  688; 
capture  of  the  Atlanta,  688;  destruc 
tion  of  the  Albemarle,  716;  capture 
of  the  Tennessee,  718. 

Iroquois    (ir-o-kwoi'),  an  Indian  race,  3. 

Irving,  Washington,  his  literary 
work,  457. 

Isabella,   queen  of  Spain,  5. 

Island  Number  Ten,  capture  of,  648. 

Italy,   dispute  with,  849. 

JACKSON,  ANDREW,  put  in  command 
of  the  Tennessee  troops,  395;  over 
throws  the  Creeks,  396;  seizes  Pen- 
sacola,  398;  completely  defeats  the 
British  expedition  against  Louisi 
ana,  399;  seizes  Florida,  414; 
nominated  for  President,  but  de 
feated,  427;  nominated  again  by 
the  Democrats  and  elected,  438; 
sketch,  441 ;  change  of  manners 
during  his  Administrations.  442;  his 
foreign  policy,  464;  his  political  con 
tests,  466;  changes  the  civil  service, 
467;  overthrows  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  468-9;  attacks  the 
American  System,  470;  re-elected 
President,  473;  resists  Nullification, 
477;  his  general  success,  481-2. 

Jackson,  Gen.  Thomas  Jonathan 
(Stonewall),  Lee's  ablest  lieutenant, 
661;  his  raid  on  Banks,  662;  re 
turns  to  the  Peninsula,  663;  over 
whelms  Pope,  664;  captures 
Harper's  Ferry,  665;  aids  in  de 
feating  Burnside  at  Fredericks- 
burgh,  667;  killed  at  Chancellors- 
vine.  674. 

Jackson,  Miss.,  held  by  Johnston, 
681-2. 

Jacksonville,  Fla.,  taken  by  the  LTnion 
forces,  715. 

Jalapa  (Hah-lah'pa),  Mex.,  occupied 
by  Scott,  536-7. 

James  I.,  king,  charters  two  coloni 
zation  companies,  25;  difficulties 
with  his  Parliament,  40. 

James  II.,  king,  his  reign  in  England, 
42;  annoys  the  colonies,  44;  takes 
away  the  charter  of  Massachusetts, 
54;  attempts  to  do  so  in  the  other 
New  England  colonies,  70. 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


593 


gW  The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


James  River,  the,  why  the  name  was 
given,  31;  McClellan's  campaign  on 
the  James,  657-63;  Grant's  cam 
paign  on  the  James,  704,  731. 

Jamestown,  Va.,  settled,  26,  31,  76; 
destroyed,  82. 

Japan,  opened  to  American  com 
merce,  569. 

Jasper,  Sergeant  William,  203,  note. 

Java,  the,  taken  by  the  Constitution, 
368. 

Jay,  John,  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  192;  first  chief  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  298;  concludes 
a  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  309. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  192-3;  author 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
206;  Secretary  of  State,  296;  a  leader 
of  the  Republican  Party,  303; 
nominated  for  President,  but  de 
feated,  311;  nominated  again  and 
elected,  323;  upholds  state  sov 
ereignty,  328;  change  of  manners 
during  his  Administrations,  330-1; 
acquires  Louisiana,  334;  orders  the 
Oregon  country  to  be  explored,  335; 
re-elected  President,  339;  his  peace 
policy,  344;  death,  432. 

Jersey,  the,  a  notorious  prison-ship, 
232. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  Senator  from  Ten 
nessee,  616;  military  governor  of 
Tennessee,  641 ;  elected  Vice-Presi 
dent,  723;  succeeds  to  the  Presi 
dency,  739;  his  feeling  in  regard  to 
the  States,  754;  his  plan  of  recon 
struction,  756;  vetoes  the  plan  of 
Congress,  but  is  defeated,  761; 
quarrels  with  Congress,  765;  re 
moves  Stanton,  766;  is  impeached, 
but  not  convicted,  767. 

Johnson,  Herschel  V.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  608. 

Johnson,  Richard  M.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President  and  elected,  480;  re- 
nominated  and  defeated,  498. 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  defeats  the 
French  and  Indians  near  Lake 
George,  146. 

Johnston,  Gen.  Albert  Sidney,  in 
command  of  the  Confederate  armies 
in  the  West,  639;  killed  at  Shiloh, 
642. 

Johnston,  Gen.  Joseph  E.,  decides  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  632;  in  com 
mand  of  the  Confederate  army  on 
the  Peninsula,  658;  wounded  and  re 
tires,  660;  succeeds  Bragg  in  the 
West,  680;  tries  to  aid  Pemberton, 
681 ;  is  driven  out  of  Jackson,  682; 
takes  command  at  Dalton,  687;  his 
position,  697;  his  retreat  from  Dal 
ton  to  Atlanta,  706;  the  reasons  for 
it,  707;  his  removal,  708;  recalled 
to  service,  728;  attacks  Sherman, 
729;  surrenders,  734. 

Joliet  (zho-le-a'),  Louis,  finds  the 
Mississippi,  136. 


Jones,    Capt.    Jacob,    in    command    of 

the   Wasp,  368. 
Jones,   Capt.  John   Paul,   in   command 

of  the  Ranger,  240;     of  the  Richard, 

242. 

Judiciary  Department,  its  duties,  283. 
Julian,     George     W.,     nominated     for 

Vice-President,  563. 

KALB  (kalb),  BARON  DE,  arrives  from 
Europe,  214;  killed  at  Camden,  249. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  its  passage  and 
consequences,  574. 

Kansas,  becomes  a  Territory,  574;  the 
two  sections  struggle  for  it,  578; 
the  free-State  settlers  win,  579;  ad 
mission,  587. 

Kansas   City,  906. 

Kansas   Pacific   Railway,  890. 

Kaskaskia  (kas-kas'ke-a),  111.,  a  form 
er  French  town,  139. 

Kearney  (kar'ni),  Gen.  S.  W.,  con 
quers  New  Mexico,  529. 

Kcarsargc  (ke'ar-sarj),  the,  sinks  the 
Alabama,  720. 

Kenesaw  (ken-e-saw')  Mountain,  bat 
tle  of,  706. 

Kennebec  (ken-e-bek')  River,  the, 
early  settlement,  33;  route  to  Can 
ada,  200. 

Kent,  James,  a  great  American  law 
yer,  459. 

Kentucky,  Boone's  settlement,  157, 
note;  followed  by  others,  235;  the 
territory  belongs  to  Virginia,  271; 
admission,  302;  massacre  of  her 
troops,  359;  sends  men  to  defend 
New  Orleans,  398;  supports  the 
Union,  626;  Confederates  in  Ken 
tucky,  639;  they  are  driven  out, 
641;  raided  by  Bragg,  644;  by 
John  Morgan,  684. 

Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions, 
the,  322. 

Key,  Francis  S.,  writes  the  song 
"  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  387,  note. 

Key  West,  Fla.,  saved  from  the  Con 
federates,  617;  naval  rendezvous, 
882. 

Kidd,  Capt.  Robert,  a  New  York  pi 
rate,  114. 

Kieft  (keeft),  Sir  William,  governor 
of  New  York,  109. 

King,  Rufus,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  339,  note;  for  President, 
409,  note. 

King,  W.  R.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  563. 

King's   Mountain,  battle  of,   250. 

Kingston,  Can.,  taken  from  the 
French  by  the  British,  148. 

Kingston,  N.  Y.,  117. 

Kingston,  R.  I.,  scene  of  the  swamp 
fight,  69. 

Klondike  gold-fields,  the,  893. 

Knox,  Gen.  Henry,  Secretary  of  War, 
296. 

Knoxville,  Tenn.,  besieged  by  the 
Confederates,  686. 


594 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


"  Know  Nothings,"  572. 

Kosciusko     (kos-si-us'ko),     Thaddeus, 

arrives  from    Europe,  214. 
Koszta   (kos'ta),   Martin,  the  case  of, 

568. 
Ku   Klux  Klan,  792. 

LABRADOR  (lab-ra-dore'),  failures  to 
settle  it,  10,  20. 

Ladrones  (lad-ro'nes),  the,  885. 

Lafayette   (lah-fu-ef),   Ind.,  350. 

La  Fayette,  Marquis  de,  arrives  from 
Europe,  214;  attacks  Newport,  230; 
fights  Arnold  and  Phillips  in  Vir 
ginia,  252;  prevents  Cornwallis  from 
escaping,  258;  revisits  the  United 
States  in  old  age,  421. 

Lancaster    (langk'as-ter),    Pa.,   217. 

Land   companies,    141,   292. 

Lane,  Joseph,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  608. 

La   Quasima    (la   kwa-se'm&),   882. 

La  Salle  (lah  sahl),  Robert  de,  names 
Louisiana,  136. 

Lava  Beds,  scene  of  an  Oregon  In 
dian  war,  785. 

Lawrence,  Capt.  James,  in  command 
of  the  Hornet,  370;  of  the  Chesa 
peake,  372. 

Lawrence,  the,   Perry's  flag-ship,  381. 

Lawrence,  the  river  St.,  its  discovery, 
ii ;  its  acquisition  by  the  French, 
18;  becomes  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States,  263. 

Laws  of  the  LTnited  States,  under  the 
Constitution,  280;  by  whom  they  are 
made,  281 ;  by  whom  they  are  exe 
cuted,  282;  by  whom  they  are  inter 
preted,  283;  laws  passed  by  Con 
gress,  297-8  (see  Congress)  ;  how  af 
fected  by  the  veto,  469;  by  the  ques 
tion  of  slavery,  508. 

Leavenworth   (lev'n-wurth),   Avan.,  529. 

Lee,  Arthur,  agent  in  France,  224, 
note. 

Lee,  Gen.  Charles,  in  command  at 
Peekskill,  210;  dismissed  from  the 
service,  228,  note. 

Lee,  Gen.  Robert  E.,  attempts  to 
recover  West  Virginia,  630;  takes 
command  of  the  Confederate  Army, 
658,  note;  recognized  as  the  ablest 
Confederate  general,  661;  fights  the 
Seven  Days'  Battles,  663;  joins 
Jackson  after  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  664;  first  invasion  of  the 
North,  665;  at  the  battle  of  An- 
tietam,  666;  defeats  Burnside  at 
Fredericksburgh,  667;  defeats  the 
Union  Army  at  Chancellorsville, 
674;  second  invasion  of  the  North, 
675-6;  defeated  at  Gettysburgh,  677- 
8;  fights  the  Wilderness  battles 
against  Grant,  701 ;  forced  back  on 
Richmond,  702-4;  retreats  from 
Richmond,  732;  surrenders  at  Ap- 
pomattox,  733. 

Legal  Tender,  meaning  of  the  term, 
670. 


Legislative  department,  its  duties  and 
membership,  281. 

Leisler  (lis<?'ler),  Jacob,  hung  for  trea 
son,  113. 

Leon,  Ponce  de  (pone'tha  da  la'one), 
discovers  Florida,  9. 

Leopard,  the,  insults  the  Chesapeake, 
344- 

Levant  (le-yanf),  the,  captured  by 
the  Constitution,  375. 

Lewes   (lu'ess),   Del.,   destroyed,  384. 

Lexington,   Mass.,  fight  at,   181. 

Liberal  Republicans,  why  they  left 
the  Republican  Party,  795;  are 
joined  by  the  Democrats  and  de 
feated,  796. 

Liberator,  the,  a  Boston  newspaper, 
462. 

Liliuokalani,  852. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  nominated  for 
President,  608;  elected,  609;  his  dis 
advantages,  621 ;  orders  Fort  Sum- 
ter  to  be  provisioned,  622;  calls 
for  volunteers,  623;  proclaims  a 
blockade  of  Southern  ports,  625; 
calls  a  special  session  of  Congress, 
631;  begins  the  appointment  of 
military  governors,  641 ;  issues  the 
Emancipation  Proclamation,  669; 
proclaims  a  day  of  thanksgiving 
for  Union  victories,  689;  re-elected 
President,  723;  the  public  estima 
tion  of  him,  736;  his  assassination 
and  death,  737;  his  funeral,  738. 

Lincoln,  Gen.  Benjamin,  in  com 
mand  of  the  American  forces  in 
South  Carolina,  244;  surrenders  at 
Charleston,  247;  receives  the  sur 
render  of  the  British  at  Yorktown, 
261. 

Literature,  in  1775,  187;  from  1790  un 
til  1830,  457;  after  1830,  458;  in  its 
maturity,  592. 

Little  Belt,  the,  beaten  by  the  Presi 
dent,  349,  note. 

Livingston,  Robert,  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  206. 

Locke,  John,  an  English  philosopher, 
91,  note. 

Locomotive  engine,  Trevithick's  and 
Stephenson's  locomotives,  429;  the 
new  machine  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  442;  Americans  make 
their  own  locomotives,  443  (see 
Railways) ;  possible  use  of  elec 
tricity,  805. 

Logan,  John  A.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  but  defeated,  826. 

Lome,  De,  letter,  876. 

London  Company,  the,  chartered,  25; 
sends  out  colonists,  31 ;  colonies 
formed  from  its  territory,  32;  loses 
its  charter,  32,  80. 

Long,  John  D.,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  869. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,  an 
American  poet,  458. 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  209. 

Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  claimed  by  Con- 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


595 


Long  Island  —  Continued. 
necticut,    but   taken    by   New   York, 
no;     held   by   the   British,   231. 

Longstreet,  Gen.  James,  in  command 
of  the  Confederate  forces  at  Knox- 
ville,  686. 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  687. 

Lords,   House   of,  40. 

Los  Angeles  (16s  ahng'Hfi-lez),  Cal., 
the  last  battle  witn  the  Mexicans  in 
California,  529;  terminus  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  783. 

Louisburgh  (loo'iis-burg),  a  French 
stronghold  on  Cape  Breton  Island, 
72;  taken  by  the  British,  148. 

Louisiana   Purchase,  the,  334. 

Louisiana,  State  of,  admission,  405; 
secedes,  613;  operations  in  the 
State,  653-5,  679,  682,  715;  recon 
structed  and  readmitted,  762;  dis 
orders  in  the  State,  790;  electoral 
votes  disputed,  798;  the  Returning 
Board,  798;  the  decision,  801. 

Louisiana  territory,  its  original  ex 
tent,  135;  so  named  by  La  Salle, 
136;  granted  to  a  French  company, 
138;  France  surrenders  that  portion 
east  of  the  Mississippi  to  Great 
Britain,  154;  France  transfers  the 
portion  west  of  the  Mississippi  to 
Spain,  and  it  keeps  the  name  Lou 
isiana,  155;  Spain's  territory  of 
Louisiana  becomes  the  western 
boundary  of  the  United  States,  263; 
transferred  by  Spain  to  France  in 
1800,  334;  by  France  to  the  United 
States  in  1803,  334;  attacked  with 
out  success  by  Great  Britain,  397; 
slavery  in  Louisiana,  415;  the  ter 
ritory  divided  by  the  Missouri  Com 
promise  line,  418  (see  Compromise, 
Missouri) ;  did  not  cover  the  Ore- 


:illed    by   a   mob   at 


gon   country,   504;     or  Texas,   505. 

Lovejoy,    E.    P.,    ki!" 
Alton,  493. 

Lowell  (lo'el),  Mass.,  growth,  450. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  his  literary 
work,  592. 

Lucifer  match,  not  known  in  1790, 
288;  its  invention,  448. 

Lundy's   Lane,  battle  of,  392. 

Luzon   (loo-son'),  war  in,  900-1. 

Lynchburgh  (linch'burg),  Va.,  at 
tacked  unsuccessfully  from  the 
Shenandoah  valley,  700;  cut  off 
from  Richmond  by  Sheridan,  731; 
Lee  tries  to  reach  it,  733. 

Lynn    (lin),   Mass.,   settlement,  49. 

Lyon,  Gen.  Nathaniel,  in  command 
of  the  Union  forces  in  Missouri, 
635. 

MACDONOUGH,    Commodore    THOMAS, 

in   command   of   the   American    fleet 

on  Lake  Champlain,  382. 
Macedonian,  the,   taken   by   the    United 

States,    368. 
Mackinaw      (mak'in-aw),      Mich.,      an 

early  French  fort,   139. 


Macon   (ma'kon),  Ga.,  725. 

Madeira  (ma-dee'ra),  368. 

Madison,  James,  one  of  the  leaders 
in  forming  the  Constitution,  278; 
elected  President,  346;  sketch,  348; 
re-elected,  351. 

Magellan  (ma-jel'lan),  Fernando,  dis 
covers  the  way  around  South  Amer 
ica,  from  Europe  to  the  East  In 
dies,  21. 

Maine,  its  Indian  names,  3;  sighted 
by  Cortereal,  12;  attempt  to  settle 
it,  33;  forms  part  of  the  Plymouth 
Company's  grant,  33;  becomes  a 
part  of  Massachusetts,  54;  a  large 
part  of  it  conquered  by  the  British 
in  1814-15,  385;  admission,  418; 
boundary  dispute  with  New  Bruns 
wick,  497;  settled  by  treaty,  503. 

Maine,  the,  blown  up  in  Havana  har 
bor,  877. 

Malietoa  (mal-e-fl-to'a),  king  of 
Samoa,  894. 

Malietoa  Tanu  (mal-e-a  toa  tii-noo'), 
894. 

Malvern  (mawl'vern)  Hill,  battle  of, 
663. 

Manassas  (ma-nas'sas)  Junction,  Va., 
632,  658. 

Manhattan  (man-hat'tan)  Island, 
bought  by  the  Dutch,  28. 

Manila,  occupied  by  the  Americans, 
881;  still  under  martial  law,  901. 

Manila  Bay,  battle  of,  881. 

Manufactures,  begun  in  New  England, 
75;  efforts  of  Parliament  to  pro 
hibit  them,  67,  163;  encouragement 
of  manufactures  by  the  colonies, 
186;  influence  of  the  patent  system, 
312  (see  Patents) ;  decline  of  manu 
factures  after  1815,  406;  in  order  to 
reviv^  them,  Congress  turns  to 
Protection,  426  (see  Protection) ; 
rise  of  manufacturing  cities,  450, 
58?. 

Marietta  (ma-re-et'ta),  O.,  settlement, 
292. 

Marion  (ma'ri-un),  Gen.  Francis,  248. 

Marque   (mark),   letters  of,  625. 

Marquesas  (mar-ka-sas')   Islands,  373. 

Marquette,  Jacques  (zhahk  mar-ket'), 
finds  the  Mississippi,  136. 

Marshall,  John,  a  great  lawyer  and 
judge,  459. 

Maryland,  part  of  the  London  Com 
pany's  grant,  32;  a  proprietary  col 
ony,  35!  its  first  proprietor  and 
name,  85;  settlement,  86;  forces 
the  transfer  of  the  western  terri 
tory  to  the  United  States,  272;  one 
of  the  "  small  "  States  in  1787,  279; 
holds  to  the  Union,  626;  operations 
in  Maryland,  665,  675. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  87. 

Mason,     John,      proprietor     of      New 

Hampshire,   55. 

Massachusetts,  its  Indian  name,  3; 
the  remnant  of  the  Plymouth  Com 
pany's  grant,  27;  originally  two 


596 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Massachusetts — Continued. 
colonies,  33;  a  charter  colony,  35;  set 
tlement  of  the  Plymouth  colony,  45; 
its  leaders,  47;  settlement  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  48;  sup 
posed  meaning  of  the  name,  48, 
note;  its  leaders,  50;  religious  per 
secution,  51-2;  witchcraft,  53;  union 
of  the  two  colonies,  54;  takes  part 
in  the  war  against  Philip,  69; 
loses  the  charter,  54,  70;  captures 
Port  Royal,  72;  proposes  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress,  166;  resists  commer 
cial  taxation,  169;  resistance  ceases 
to  be  peaceable,  171;  Parliament 
declares  the  Massachusetts  people 
rebels,  172;  and  attempts  to  alter 
the  charter,  175;  Congress  promises 
to  support  Massachusetts,  177;  state 
of  the  colony  in  1775,  180;  the  Mas 
sachusetts  people  fight  the  British, 
181-2 ;  and  besiege  Boston,  183 ;  stands 
second  in  population  in  1775  and 
seventh  in  1880,  184;  operations  in 
Massachusetts,  194-8;  Massachusetts 
claims  western  territory,  271 ;  cedes 
it  to  the  United  States,  273;  rebel 
lion  in,  276;  introduces  the  normal- 
school  system,  for  training  public- 
school  teachers,  455. 

Massachusetts  Government  Act,  the, 
175- 

Mataafa  (ma-ta-a'fa),  king  of  Samoa, 
894- 

Matamoras  (mat-fl-mo'ros),  Mex.,  526, 
53i- 

Mather  (math'er),  Cotton,  a  Massa 
chusetts  minister,  53. 

Mauch  Chunk  (mawk  chunk),  Pa., 
429. 

Maximilian,  made  emperor  of  Mexico, 
695;  taken  and  shot  by  the  Mexi 
cans,  770. 

Mayflower,  the,  45. 

McClellan,  Gen.  George  B.,  enters 
West  Virginia,  630;  called  to  com 
mand  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
633;  transfers  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  to  the  Peninsula,  657; 
takes  Yorktown  and  tries  to  make 
a  junction  with  McDowell,  659; 
the  army  is  divided  by  the  Chicka- 
hominy,  660;  McClellan  loses  con 
nection  with  McDowell,  662;  fights 

.  the  Seven  Days'  Battles  and  reaches 
the  James  River,  663;  recalled  to 
aid  Pope,  664;  leads  his  army 
across  Maryland  to  cover  Baltimore, 
665;  fights  the  battle  of  Antietam, 
and  is  succeeded  by  Burnside,  666; 
nominated  for  President,  but  de 
feated,  723. 

McClure,  Capt.  R.  J.  M.,  finds  a 
"  northwest  passage,"  21. 

McDowell,  Gen.  Irvin,  in  command  of 
the  Union  forces  at  Bull  Run,  632; 
of  the  force  covering  Washington, 
659;  cut  off  from  McClellan,  662. 

McKinley  Tariff  Act,  842. 


McKinley,  Wm.,  elected  President, 
865;  causes  of  his  election,  869;  in 
augural  address,  869;  calls  extra 
session  of  Congress,  869;  appoints 
monetary  commission,  872;  an 
nounces  his  Cuban  policy,  875;  his 
proposition  to  Spain,  878;  requests 
authority  from  Congress  to  inter 
vene  by  force,  878;  proclaims  a 
blockade  of  Cuba,  882;  attitude 
towards  the  civil  service,  892; 
recommends  control  of  Nicaraguan 
canal  by  the  United  States,  895; 
Philippine  policy,  900;  appoints 
civil  commissioners  for  the  Philip 
pines,  900;  appoints  an  Insular 
Commission  for  Porto  Rico,  903; 
on  the  Porto  Rican  tariff  question, 
904;  renominated,  906. 
Meade,  Gen.  George  G.,  in  command 

at    Gettysburgh,   676-7. 
Mechanicsville,  battle  of,  663. 
Mediation    of    Russia    to    make    peace 
between      Great      Britain      and      the 
United  States,  400;    of  Great  Britain 
to  make  peace  between   France  and 
the   United  States,  464. 
Memphis,    Tenn.,    visited    by    yellow 

fever,  808.' 

Meridian  (me-rid'I-an),  Miss.,  occu 
pied  by  Sherman,  717. 
Mcrrimac,  the,  turned  into  a  Con 
federate  iron-clad,  649;  destroys  the 
Union  fleet  in  Hampton  Roads,  650; 
fights  the  Monitor,  651;  results  of 
the  battle,  651;  destruction  of  the 
Mcrrimac,  659. 

Merritt,  Gen.  Wesley,  at  Manila,  881. 
Mexico,  its  Indian  empire,  2;  Spanish 
adventure  in  it,  7;  conquered  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1521,  14;  perhaps 
aimed  at  by  Burr,  340;  rebels 
against  Spain  and  becomes  an  in 
dependent  republic,  506;  claims 
Texas,  524;  claims  the  Nueces 
River  as  the  western  boundary  of 
Texas,  524;  her  disadvantages  in 
war,  526;  war  declared,  527;  loses 
California,  529;  and  New  Mexico, 
529;  Taylor's  operations,  531-3; 
Scott's  operations,  534-42;  peace 
concluded,  543;  Maximilian  be 
comes  emperor,  695;  and  is  taken 
and  shot  by  the  Mexicans,  770. 
Michigan,  claimed  by  Virginia,  271; 
covered  by  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
274;  surrendered  by  Hull,  356;  re 
conquered  by  Harrison,  361;  made 
a  Territory,  405;  admission,  454; 
copper  in,  512. 

Milan    (mi-Ian'),   Decree,  the,   343. 
Miles,    Major-Gen.    Nelson    A.,    occu 
pies    Porto    Rieo,   883;     the    "  beef  " 
scandal,   899. 

Militia,  in  the  Revolutionary  armies, 
265;  power  of  Congress  over,  281; 
employed  in  the  Whiskey  Insurrec 
tion.  307;  against  iU-  "  A"*: 
renters,"  514. 


the 


Anti- 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


597 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Milledgeville,  Ga.,  713. 

Millen,  Ga.,  713. 

Mill   Spring,  battle  of,  640. 

Mills   Uill,  the,  839. 

Minerals,  mineral  wealth  of  the  Unit 
ed  States,  511;  of  the  South,  824. 

Minnesota,  part  of  the  Louisiana  pur 
chase,  334;  admission,  587;  Sioux 
war  in,  673. 

Mint,  the,  first  coins  issued,  312. 

Minuit  (min'u-it),  Peter,  gorernor  of 
New  Netherland,  29;  of  Delaware, 
109. 

Minute-men,  in  Massachusetts,  180;  in 
the  Revolutionary  armies,  265. 

Missionary   Ridge,   battle  of,  687. 

Mississippi,  claimed  by  Georgia,  271; 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  273; 
made  a  Territory,  324;  part,  of  the 
Southwest  Territory,  394;  admission, 
419;  secedes,  613;  operations  in, 
643,  646,  679-82,  717,  727;  refuses  the 
first  terms  of  reconstruction,  762; 
electoral  votes  not  received  in  1868, 
768,  note;  reconstructed  and  read 
mitted,  788;  disorders  in,  790. 

Mississippi  River,  the,  crossed  by  De 
Soto,  14;  upper  part  found  by  Mar- 
quette  and  Joliet,  136;  its  mouth 
found  by  d'Iberville,  138;  becomes 
the  boundary  between  Spanish 
Louisiana  and  the  British  colonies, 
154;  some  of  the  States  claim  to 
extend  west  to  the  Mississippi,  271; 
treaty  with  Spain  as  to  its  use,  315; 
steamboat  used  on  it,  405,  449;  In 
dians  removed  beyond  it,  430;  forti 
fied  by  the  Confederates,  628;  opened 
up  as  far  south  as  Memphis,  643; 
gunboat  operations  on  it,  648; 
opened  up  throughout,  except  at 
Vicksburgh  and  Port  Hudson,  655; 
the  completion  of  the  work  falls  to 
Grant,  679;  he  operates  at  first  on 
the  west  side  of  the  river,  681 ;  after 
ward  on  the  east  side,  681 ;  Vicks 
burgh  and  Port  Hudson  surrender 
and  the  river  is  opened,  682;  re 
sults,  689-90;  surrender  of  the  Con 
federate  forces  west  of  the  river, 
734;  difficulties  in  its  navigation, 
809,  821. 

Missouri,  part  of  the  Louisiana  pur 
chase,  334;  admission,  418;  State 
officers  secessionists,  626;  opera 
tions  in  Missouri,  635,  637,  647. 
Missouri  Compromise.  See  Compro 
mise,  Missouri. 

Mobile  (mo-beel'),  Ala.,  originally  an 
Indian    town,     14;      settled    by    the 
French,    138;     one   of   the   last"  Con 
federate    ports,    715;     how    Farragut 
forced    his    way    into    the    bay,    718; 
surrender  of  the  city,  727. 
Modoc  War,  the,  785. 
Mohawk   River,   the,   219. 
Mohawks,  an  Indian  tribe,  3. 
Molino  del  Rey  (mo-le'no  del  ra),  bat 
tle   of,   541. 


Monetary  commission,   the,  872,  889. 

Monetary  conference  at  Indianapolis, 
889. 

Monsy  or  currency,  tobacco,  78;  rice, 
98;  paper,  233,  670;  coin,  281;  State 
paper,  286;  lack  of  money  in  1812, 

Monitor,  the,  built  by  Ericsson,  649; 
battle  with  the  Merrimac,  651 ;  its 
effects  on  naval  construction,  651. 

Monk's  Corner,  battle  of,  247. 

Monmouth  (mon'muth),  battle  of, 
228. 

Monongahela  (mo-non-ga-he'lo)  Riv 
er,  the,  142,  853. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  the,  its  announce 
ment,  420;  violation  by  France,  695; 
the  United  States  again  enforces  it, 
770,  86 1. 

Monroe  (mun-ro'),  James,  elected 
President,  409;  re-elected,  413. 

Montana,  835. 

Montauk,  camp  at,  882. 

Montcalm  (mont-kahm'),  Marquis  de, 
in  command  of  the  French  forces 
in  Canada,  147;  deiends  Ticon- 
deroga,  148;  draws  all  his  forces 
to  defend  Quebec,  150;  defeat  and 
death,  151. 

Monterey    (mon-te-ra'),   Cal.,   529. 

Monterey,  Mex.,  occupied  by  Taylor, 

Montgomery,  Ala.,  capital  of  the 
Confederate  States,  614;  capital 
changed  to  Richmond,  628. 

Montgomery,  Gen.  Richard,  killed  at 
Quebec,  200. 

Montreal  (mont-re-awl'),  a  French 
town,  72,  139;  taken  by  the  English, 
152;  taken  and  lost  by  the  Ameri 
cans,  200;  an  object  of  American 
attack,  357. 

Monts  (mawn(g)),  de,  a  successful 
French  colonizer,  19. 

Morgan,  Gen.  Daniel,  in  command 
of  the  Americans  at  the  Cowpens, 

25 1- 

Morgan,  John,  a  Confederate  cavalry 
officer,  684. 

Morgan,  William,  his  abduction  and 
its  consequences,  472. 

Mormons,  the,  their  origin  and  settle 
ment  in  Illinois,  495;  remove  to 
Utah,  586;  still  resist  the  laws 
against  polygamy,  822;  renounce 
polygamy,  862. 

Morris,  Robert,  a  member  of  the  Con 
tinental  Congress,  192. 

Morristown,  N.  J.,  the  American 
headquarters  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  Revolution,  212,  229,  239. 

Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  and  the  electric  tele 
graph,  510. 

Morton,  Levi  P.,  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent,  840. 

Morton,  Dr.  W.  T.  G.,  and  anaes 
thetics,  517. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  his  literary 
work,  592. 


598 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Moultrie  (mole'trl),  William,  defends 
Charleston  against  the  British,  203. 

Mount  Hope,  R.  I.,  King  Philip's 
headquarters,  69. 

Mount  Vernon,  Ya.,  Washington's 
home,  310,  325. 

Muravieff  (moo-ra've-ef),  Count, 
peace  proposals,  897. 

Murfreesboro  (mur-freez-bur'ro),  .bat 
tle  of,  645. 

NAPOLEON   BONAPARTE.     See  France. 

Narragansett  (nar-ra-gan'set),  an  In 
dian  name,  3. 

Narvaez  (nar-vah'eth),  a  Spanish  ex 
plorer,  9. 

Nashville,   battle  of,   711. 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  taken  by  the  Union 
forces,  641. 

Natchez  (nach'ez),  Miss.,  a  former 
French  post,  139;  Burr  arrested 
there,  340;  in  the  Southwest  Terri 
tory,  394;  Tennessee  volunteers 
marched  thither,  395. 

National  Banks,  their  superiority  to 
the  old  State  banks,  484;  institu 
tion  of  the  system,  670. 

National  Party.  See  Greenback 
Party. 

National  Republicans,  437,  471  (see 
Whig  Party). 

National    Road,   appropriations   for   it, 

Naturalization,  position  of  the  United 
States,  567. 

Nautilus,  the,  taken  by  the  Peacock 
after  the  treaty  of  peace,  and  re 
stored  to  the  British,  375. 

Nauvoo,  111.,  the  Mormon  settlement, 
495- 

Naval  School,  the,  established  at  An 
napolis,  519. 

Navigation  Acts,  the,  their  passage 
and  purpose,  67;  aimed  particu 
larly  at  Virginia,  80;  the  Board  of 
Trade  tries  to  enforce  them,  13.2;  j 
they  are  evaded  or  disobeyed,  158, 
163;  why  the  colonies  submitted  to 
them,  168;  violent  attempts  to  en 
force  them,  186. 

Navy,  the,  the  privateer  navy  of  the 
colonies  in  1763,  153;  Congress  at 
tempts  to  form  one,  191 ;  successes 
of  the  vessels  built,  240;  the  pov 
erty  of  Congress  defeats  the  at 
tempt,  241;  purchase  of  vessels  in 
France,  242;  under  the  Constitu 
tion,  Congress  regulates  the  navy, 
281;  and  the  President  is  its  com- 
mander-in-chief,  282;  the  poverty 
of  the  United  States  still  interferes 
with  its  navy,  313;  France  forces 
Congress  to  increase  the  navy,  319; 
its  success,  319;  the  navy  chastises 
the  Barbary  States,  341-2;  why  the 
Republicans  did  not  favor  a  navy, 
344;  the  navy  in  1812,  352;  very  lit 
tle  expected  from  it,  365;  its  bril 
liant  successes,  366-7;  their  effects, 


Navy — Continued. 

369;  the  lake  navies  and  their  suc 
cess,  378-382;  first  attempts  to  use 
torpedoes  and  steam-vessels,  384; 
subsequent  effects  of  the  nava'  suc 
cesses,  401 ;  the  navy  brings  the 
Barbary  States  to  a  lasting  peace, 
404;  change  of  the  navy  by  the 
introduction  of  steam  war-vessels, 
447;  a  naval  force  occupies  Charles 
ton  harbor,  477;  the  navy  occupies 
the  Pacific  coast  of  Mexico,  529; 
and  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexi 
co,  535;  rescues  Koszta,  568;  opens 
up  Japan,  569;  its  officers  generally 
hold  to  the  Union  in  1861,  616; 
attempts  to  provision  Fort  Sumter, 
622;  blockades  the  Southern  ports, 
625;  captures  the  forts  at  Hatteras 
Inlet,  Port  Royal,  and  Ship  Island, 
636;  takes  Mason  and  Slidell,  638; 
a  \Yestern  river  navy  formed,  648; 
the  wooden  vessels  give  way  to 
iron-clads,  651;  the  navy  captures 
Roanoke  Island,  652;  forces  its  way 
up  the  Mississippi,  654;  takes  New 
Orleans,  655;  controls  the  James 
River,  659;  pursues  Confederate 
privateers,  672;  runs  the  Vicks- 
burgh  batteries  and  ferries  Grant's 
army  over  the  Mississippi,  681 ;  at 
tacks  Fort  Sumter  without  success, 
688;  captures  the  Atlanta,  688;  blows 
up  the  Albcmarle,  716;  joins  in  the 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  716;  de 
stroys  the  Confederate  fleet  at  Mo 
bile,  718;  takes  the  Alabama,  720; 
the  Florida,  720;  and  the  Georgia, 
720;  size  of  the  navy  during  the 
Civil  War,  746;  in  1889,  834,  844; 
destroys  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Ma- 
ila,  881;  at  Santiago,  882. 

Nebraska,  part  of  the  Louisiana  pur 
chase,  334;  admission,  774. 

Negros  (na'gros),  900,  901. 

Nevada  (ne-vah'da),  part  of  the  Mexi 
can  cession,  544;  silver  discoyered 
in  it,  590;  admission,  726;  influ 
ence  of  its  silver  production  on  the 
business  of  the  world,  810. 

New  Albion,  Drake's  name  for  west 
ern  North  America,  15. 

New  Amsterdam,  the  Dutch  name  for 
New  York  City,  28. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  settlement,  119. 

New   Berne,   N.   C.,   settlement,  93. 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Washington 
retreats  through  it,  210;  becomes 
the  British  headquarters,  213. 

New  Brunswick,  province  of,  bound 
ary  dispute  with  Maine,  497. 

New  England,  when  the  name  was 
given,  33,  note;  its  colonies,  33  (see 
Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Ver 
mont,  Maine)  ;  the  religious  feeling 
of  its  people,  51;  their  dealings 
with  the  Quakers,  52;  the  New  Eng 
land  Confederation,  66;  their  com- 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


599 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


33i 
bai 


New  England — Continued. 

mercial  difficulties  (see  Navigation 
Acts);  with  the  Indians,  68-9;  with 
Andros,  70;  with  the  French,  71-3; 
growth  and  character,  74-5;  their 
first  colleges,  158;  its  colonies  join 
in  the  siege  of  Boston,  183;  slavery 
decays  in  it,  188;  military  opera 
tions  in  it  during  the  Revolution, 

194-8,    203,    207,    214,     220,    230,     243,    245, 

259;  holds  to  the  Federal  Party, 
dissatisfaction  with  the  Em- 
)argo,  345;  and  with  the  War  of 
1812,  355;  its  coast  blockaded,  383; 
part  of  it  taken  by  the  British, 
385;  the  Hartford  Convention,  389- 
390;  dislike  to  the  Mexican  War, 
527. 

Newfoundland  (nu'fund-land),  its 
fisheries,  10,  11;  Gilbert  visits  it, 
20;  Calvert  tries  to  colonize  it,  85; 
the  right  to  the  fisheries  secured 
to  Americans,  263;  disputes  arbi 
trated,  834. 

New  Hampshire  (hamp'shur),  part  of 
the  Plymouth  Company's  grant,  33; 
a  royal  colony,  35;  assigned  to  John 
Mason,  55;  history,  56;  one  of  the 
"  small  "  States  in  1787,  279;  the 
ninth  State  to  ratify  the  Constitu 
tion,  286. 

New  Haven  (havn),  Conn.,  at  first  a 
separate  colony,  33;  settlement,  60; 
joined  to  Connecticut,  61 ;  plundered 
by  the  British,  245. 

New  Jersey,  part  of  the  Dutch  terri 
tory,  28;  taken  from  the  Dutch  by 
the  English,  109;  becomes  a  royal 
colony,  118;  settlement  and  history, 
119-120;  Washington  retreats  through 
it,  210;  the  British  occupy  a  part 
of  it,  213;  the  British  retreat  across 
it,  228;  send  plundering  expedi 
tions  into  it,  231;  one  of  the 
"  small  "  States  in  1787,  279;  trusts 
in,  891. 

New  Jersey,   College  of,   120. 

New  London,  Conn.,  attacked  by  Ar 
nold,  259. 

New  Madrid  (mad'rid),  Mo.,  648. 

New  Mexico,  explored  by  the  Span 
iards,  13;  taken  from  Mexico,  529; 
part  of  it  claimed  by  Texas,  553; 
organized  as  a  Territory,  555. 

New  Netherland,  settled  by  the 
Dutch,  28;  taken  by  the  English, 
109. 

New  Orleans  (or'le-anz),  La.,  settled 
by  the  French,  138  (see  Louisiana) ; 
a  Spanish  city  in  1795,  315;  the  Brit 
ish  expedition  against  it,  394;  the 
city  fortified,  398;  the  expedition 
defeated,  399;  importance  of  the 
city  to  the  Confederates,  653;  sur 
render  to  Farragut,  655;  the  yellow 
fever  epidemic,  808;  exposition, 
824;  mob,  849. 

Newport,  Capt.  Christopher,  an  agent 
of  the  London  Company,  31. 


Newport,  R.  I.,  settlement,  62;  taken 
by  the  British,  214;  attacked  by 
the  Americans  and  French,  230; 
held  by  the  British,  231;  evacuated 
by  the  British,  247;  arrival  of  a 
French  army,  257. 

Newspapers,  in  1760,  158;  in  1775, 
187;  in  1790,  289;  the  first  in  the 
northwest,  314;  changes  about  1835, 
456;  improvements  in  printing  and 
news-collecting,  518;  in  1860,  592. 

New  York  City,  settled  by  the  Dutch, 
28;  the  negro  plot,  115;  growth  of 
the  city,  116;  meeting  of  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress,  166;  Washington  ar 
rives  at,  208;  taken  by  the  British, 
209;  part  of  the  British  leave  it  f pi- 
Philadelphia,  215;  return  to  it, 
228;  held  by  the  British  for  the  rest 
of  the  war,  229;  evacuated  by  them, 
264;  the  city  in  1787,  288;  inaugu 
ration  of  the  new  government,  294; 
ceases  to  be  the  capital,  299;  fear 
of  an  attack  on  the  city,  384;  the 
"  great  fire,"  and  the  Croton  Aque 
duct,  450;  World's  Fair,  564;  the 
Clearing-house,  565;  the  Brooklyn 
Bridge,  566,  note;  Central  Park  and 
Astor  Library,  595 ;  the  draft  riots,  693. 

New  York  State,  settled  by  the  Dutch 
as  New  Netherland,  28;  conquered 
by  the  English,  34,  109;  a  royal 
colony,  35;  its  name  changed  to 
New  York,  109;  size  of  the  colony, 
no;  reconquered  by  Holland,  but 
given  back,  in;  the  patroon  sys 
tem,  112;  history  under  the  Eng 
lish,  113-117;  the  French  driven  out 
of  northwestern  New  York,  148; 
refuses  to  obey  Parliament,  167; 
Parliament  attempts  to  punish  it,  169; 
the  road  into  Canada,  199;  the 
Tories  '  in  New  York,  207;  Bur- 
goyne's  expedition,  218-222;  the 
whole  State,  except  New  York 
City  and  part  of  Long  Island,  held 
by  the  Americans  for  the  rest  of 
the  war,  229;  the  western  boundary, 
271;  cession  of  the  western  claims, 
273;  a  "  small  State  "  in  1787,  279; 
ratifies  the  Constitution,  286;  the 
State  in  1790,  291;  in  1812,  354; 
military  operations  in  the  State, 
362-4,  380,  382,  391 ;  western  New 
York  after  the  war,  405;  the  Erie 
Canal,  424;  attempt  to  aid  the  re 
bellion  in  Canada,  496;  the  "  anti- 
rent  "  disturbances,  514;  the  elec 
toral  vote  of  the  State  in  1844,  515; 
in  1848,  548;  its  electoral  vote  in 
1884  and  1888,  826,  840. 

Nez  Perces  (na  pare'saz),  an  Indian 
tribe,  807. 

Niagara,  the,  captures  the  Georgia, 
720. 

Niagara,  the,  Perry's  new  flag-ship, 
381. 

Nicaragua,  834;  Nicaragua  Canal 
Commission,  895;  England  re- 


6oo 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


%&"  The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Nicaragua — Continued. 
nounces  all  claims  to  a  share  in  the 
control  of  the  canal,  896;     construc 
tion  of  the  canal  called  for  by  the 
Republican  platform  of  1900,  906. 

Nichols  (nik'uls),  Col.  Richard,  first 
English  governor  of  New  York,  109. 

Non-Intercourse  Act,  the,  takes  the 
place  of  the  Embargo,  345;  revived 
against  Great  Britain,  349. 

Norfolk  (nor'fuk),  Va.,  attacked  by 
the  British,  203,  245;  the  southern 
end  of  the  Confederate  line,  628;  a 
Confederate  navy  yard,  649,  659. 

Normal  schools,  their  institution,  455. 

Norristown,   Fa.,  217. 

North  Carolina,  possibly  sighted  by 
Cabot,  10 ;  Raleigh's  attempts  to 
colonize,  23;  part  of  the  London 
Company's  grant,  32;  a  royal  col 
ony,  35,  92  (see  Carolina) ;  settle 
ment  of  North  Carolina,  93;  its 
government,  94;  manner  of  life  of 
its  people,  96;  military  operations 
in  it  during  the  Revolution,  250, 
251,  253;  western  claims,  271;  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  273;  refuses  at 
first  to  ratify  the  Constitution,  286; 
ratifies  it  in  1790,  302;  secedes, 
626;  one  of  the  Confederate  States, 
628;  military  operations  in,  636,  652, 
716,  728-9,  734;  reconstructed  and 
readmitted,  762. 

North  Dakota,  835. 

North  Point,  battle  of,  387. 

Northwest  Passage,  the,  anxiety  of 
our  forefathers  to  find  it,  21 ;  what 
has  taken  its  place,  783. 

Northwest  Territory,  the,  claimed  by 
Virginia  for  herself,  271;  by  the 
other  States  for  the  United  States, 
272;  ceded  to  the  United  States, 
273;  unsettled  in  1786,  291;  settle 
ment  begun  by  land  companies,  292; 
Congress  arranges  a  government  for 

"  it,  274;  the  Indian  title  got  rid  of, 
308;  the  British  possession  aban 
doned,  309;  the  Indians  defeated, 
350;  its  population  in  1812,  353; 
roads,  354;  the  whole  Territory  sur 
rendered  by  Hull,  356;  regained  by 
the  Americans,  361. 

Norwalk  (nor'wok),  Conn.,  attacked 
by  the  British,  214,  245. 

Nova  Scotia,  settled  by  the  French, 
19  (see  Acadia) ;  taken  and  held 
by  the  English,  71-2,  146;  a  refuge 
for  the  Tories,  266. 

Nueces  (noo-a'sez)   River,  the,  524. 

Nullification,   475-7. 

OCEAN  STEAMERS,  one  crosses  the  At 
lantic  in  1819,  337,  note;  no  more 
until  1838,  447. 

Ocean  telegraph,  final  success,  772. 

Office-holders,  Federal,  discharged 
under  Jackson  for  not  belongine  to 
the  successful  party,  467;  the  Ten 
ure  of  Office  Act,  766;  the  natural 


Office-holders  — Continued. 
results  of  the  system,  794;    reforms 
in   it,  819. 

Ogdensburgh,  N.  Y.,  139,  363. 

Ogeechee  (o-ge'che)  River,  the,  713. 

Oglethorpe  (o'gl-thorp),  Gen.  James, 
the  founder  of  Georgia,  103;  death, 
106,  note. 

Ohio,  claimed  by  Virginia,  271;  set 
tlement,  291,  314;  under  the  Ordi 
nance  of  1787,  274;  the  Indian  title 
got  rid  of,  308;  growth  of  the  State, 
313;  difficulties  of  early  settlement 
in  it,  314;  admission,  336. 

Ohio  Company,  of  1750,  141;  of  1787, 
292. 

Oil.     See  Petroleum. 

Okechobee     (o-ke-cho'be),     battle    of, 


463- 
"  Old 


Dominion,"    the,    a    name    for 
Virginia,  80,  note. 

Oklahoma,  846. 

"  Old  Hickory,"  a  name  for  Jackson, 
441. 

"  Old  Ironsides,"  a  name  for  the 
Constitution,  366,  note. 

Oliver,   Andrew,    169. 
!     Olney,   Richard,  863. 
,    Olustee  (o-lus'te),  battle  of,  715. 
i     Omaha    (o'ma-haw),    Neb.,    783. 

Omnibus    Bill,   the,   554. 

Oneidas   (o-ni'daz),  an  Indian  tribe,  3. 

Onondagas  (o-non-daw'gaz),  an  In 
dian  tribe,  3. 

Orders  in  Council,  adopted,  343;  not 
openly  surrendered  by  the  treaty 
of  Ghent,  401. 

Ordinance  of  1787,  the,  274. 

Oregon  (or'e-gpn)  (see  Oregon  Coun 
try),  admission,  587;  Indian  war 
in  it,  785. 

Oregon  Country,  the,  explored  by 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  335;  Americans 
begin  to  settle  in  it,  503;  Great 
Britain  claims  it,  504;  the  claim 
compromised,  523. 

Orinoco   (o-ri-no'ko)   River,  the,  8. 

Oriskany   (o-ris'ka-m),   battle   of,   220. 

Osceola  (6s-e-o'la),  a  Florida  Indian 
chief,  463. 

Ossabaw   Sound,   714. 

Ostend  (os-tend'),  Circular,  the,  570 

Otis,  Gen.  E.  S.,  in  the  Philippines, 
900. 

Otis  (o'tis),  James,  a  Massachusetts 
orator,  165;  becomes  insane,  169. 

PACIFIC  RAILROADS,  Congress  orders 
surveys  in  1853,  562;  the  work  on 
the  Central  begun  in  1862  and  fin 
ished  in  1869,  783;  the  Northern 
and  Southern  Pacific,  783;  scandals 
connected  with  them,  794,  note; 
connection  with  the  government 
ended,  890. 

Packenham  (pak'n-am),  Sir  Edward, 
in  command  of  the  British  expedi 
tion  against  New  Orleans,  399;  de 
feated  and  killed,  399. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


60 1 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages 


Pago-Pago  (pa'go-pa'go),  a  Samoan 
harbor,  894. 

Paine   (pan^),   Thomas,   204. 

Palmer,  Gen.  John  M.,  nominated  for 
President,  865. 

Palo  Alto  (pah'lo  ahl'to),  battle  of,  526. 

Palos  (pah'los),  Columbus's  point  of 
departure,  6. 

Panama    (pan-a-mah')    Canal,   834. 

Panay    (pa-nay'),  900. 

Panic,  meaning  of  the  term,  485;  the 
panic  of  1837,  496;  of  1857,  585;  of 
1873,  ?8i,  794,  804;  of  1893,  855. 

Paper  Money  or  Currency,  danger  of 
excessive  issues,  233;  excessive  is 
sues  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
233-4;  State  paper,  286;  State  banks, 
484;  results  of  their  issues,  485; 

&aper  in  the  Civil  War,  670;  in  the 
onfederacy,  690, 721 ;  demands  of  the 
Greenback  Party,  797;  abandon 
ment  of  an  exclusively  paper  cur 
rency,  813. 

Parliament,  the  governing  body  of 
England,  40;  abolishes  the  mon 
archy  for  a  time,  41 ;  defects  of  its 
membership,  160;  claims  the  right 
to  tax  the  colonies,  161;  gives  no 
representation  to  the  colonies,  162; 
its  regulation  of  the  colonies,  163; 
passes  the  Stamp  Act,  164;  repeals 
it,  167;  still  refuses  representation 
to  the  colonies,  168;  lays  a  commer 
cial  tax  on  the  colonies,  169;  pro 
voked  with  the  resistance  to  it,  172; 
reduces  the  tax  to  a  tea  tax,  173; 
tries  to  punish  resistance,  175;  war 
between  Parliament  and  Congress, 
190;  proposes  conciliation,  202;  not 
mentioned  in  the  Declaration  of  In 
dependence,  206;  offers  representa 
tion  to  the  colonies,  227;  compels 
the  king  to  make  peace  with  the 
United  States,  262. 

Parties,  formation  of,  in  1787,  285; 
only  one  party  left  in  1789,  303; 
first  great  change  in  party  con 
trol  of  the  government,  330;  only 
one  party  left  in  1816,  409,  427; 
it  begins  to  split,  433;  divides  into 
two  parties,  437;  party  excitement 
under  Jackson,  466;  party  changes 
about  1850,  560;  re-formation  of 
parties,  576;  the  parties  in  1860, 
608;  on  the  war,  723;  on  reconstruc 
tion,  768;  on  support  of  recon 
structed  governments,  796;  de 
cadence  of  party  differences,  797; 
on  Free  Trade  and  Protection,  826, 
854;  on  Silver  (see  party  names: 
locratic,  Republican,  Federalist, 


Whig,  National  Republican,  Liber 
ty,  Free-Soil,  American,  Liberal 
Republican,  Greenback,  People's). 

Patents,  issue  of,  312;  their  effect  on 
invention,  338;  on  the  wealth  of 
the  country,  591. 

Paterson,  N.  J.,  growth  from  manu 
factures,  450. 


Patriot  War,   the,   in   Canada,  496. 

Patroons,  the  system  introduced  by 
the  Dutch,  112;  its  effects  in  the 
Revolution,  207;  end  of  the  sys 
tem,  514. 

Peacock,  the,  an  English  war-vessel, 
sunk  by  the  Hornet,  370;  an  Ameri 
can  war-vessel,  takes  the  Epervier, 
374;  and  the  Nautilus,  375. 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  647. 

Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  the  end  of  Wash 
ington's  retreat  from  New  York, 
209;  Lee  left  in  charge  of  it,  210; 
too  strong  for  the  British,  218; 
Washington  holds  it  throughout  the 
war,  229. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  and  the  police,  595, 
note. 

Pelican,  the,  takes  the  Argus,  372. 

Pemberton,  Gen.  J.  C.,  in  command 
at  Vicksburgh,  680;  surrenders  to 
Grant,  682. 

Pendleton,  George  H.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  723. 

Penguin,  the,  taken  by  the  Hornet, 
375- 

Peninsular  Campaign,  the,  659-63. 

Penitentiaries,  a  reform  in  the  pun 
ishment  of  criminals,  461. 

Penn,  William,  obtains  a  grant  of 
land  for  a  colony,  121;  comes  to 
America  and  settles  Philadelphia, 
123;  settles  the  government,  124; 
connection  of  his  family  with  the 
colony  and  State,  125. 

Pennsylvania,  soil  conquered  from 
the  Dutch,  34;  a  proprietary  colony, 
35;  granted  to  Penn,  121;  settle 
ment  of  the  colony,  123;  the  govern 
ment  settled,  124;  growth  of  the 
colony,  127;  Braddock's  march 
through  the  colony,  146;  military 
operations  during  the  Revolution, 
210,  216-17,  232;  insurrection  in  the 
western  part  of  the  State,  307; 
coal,  291,  338;  railroads,  429;  iron, 
291,  511;  military  operations  during 
the  Civil  War,  675-7;  railroad  riots, 
806,  853. 

Pennsylvania  Hall,  destroyed  by  a 
mob,  493. 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  founded, 
126. 

Pensacola  (pen-sa-ko'la),  Fla.,  seized 
by  Jackson,  398,  414;  fort  saved, 
617. 

Pensions,  to  Revolutionary  soldiers, 
234,  note;  to  Union  soldiers,  747; 
amount  of,  748;  vetoes,  830;  De 
pendent  Pension  Bill,  844. 

"  People's  Party,"  826,  note,  865,  870,' 
906. 

Peoria  (pe-o'ri-a),  111.,  a  French  post, 
139;  taken  by  the  Americans,  361. 

Peorias,  an   Indian  tribe,  3. 

Pequots  (pe'kwotz),  a  Connecticut 
tribe  of  Indians,  59. 

Perry,  Commodore  M.  C.,  opens  up 
Japan,  569. 


6O2 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Perry,  Commodore  O.  H.,  captures  a 
British  fleet  off  Sandusky,  on  Lake 
Erie,  381. 

Perryville,  battle  of,  644. 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  settlement  of, 
119. 

Peru  (pe-roo'),  an  Indian  empire,  2; 
conquered  by  Spain,  7. 

Petersburg!!,  Va.,  threatened  by  But 
ler,  700;  reached  by  Grant,  704;  its 
fortifications,  704;  beseiged  by 
Grant,  730;  captured,  732. 

Petition,  right  of,  impeded  by  Con 
gress,  494. 

Petroleum,  not  known  in  1790,  288; 
in  Pennsylvania,  511,  590. 

Philadelphia,  settlement,  123;  growth, 
126;  the  taxed  tea,  174;  First  Con 
tinental  Congress,  177;  Second  Con 
tinental  Congress,  191 ;  abandoned 
by  Congress,  211;  Howe  moves  tow 
ard  it  by  sea,  215;  takes  it,  216; 
makes  it  his  winter  quarters,  216; 
Clinton,  his  successor,  leaves  it  for 
New  York,  228;  the  revolted  troops 
set  out  for  it,  239;  Washington  and 
Rochambeau  pass  through  it,  258; 
the  Convention  of  1787,  279;  the 
city  in  1787,  288;  time  of  travel  to 
New  York,  290;  made  the  national 
capital  for  ten  years,  299;  capital 
removed  to  Washington,  324; 
slavery  riot,  493;  threatened  by 
Lee,  665;  relieved  by  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  666;  again  threatened  by 
Lee,  675 ;  relieved  by  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg!!,  677;  the  Centennial 
celebration,  787. 

Philadelphia,  the,  captured  and  burned, 
342. 

Philip,  King,  his  struggle  against  the 
whites,  68. 

Philippines,  the,  transferred  to  the 
United  States  by  Spain,  885,  900; 
military  operations  in,  900;  control 
left  in  the  President's  hands  by 
Congress,  901;  establishment  of 
municipal  governments,  901;  pres 
ent  conditions  in,  901 ;  influence  on 
Porto  Rican  tariff  question,  904; 
their  retention  gives  rise  to  the 
question  of  "  expansion,"  905. 

Phillips,  Gen.,  in  command  of  the 
British  forces  in  Virginia,  252. 

Phoebe  (fe'be),  the,  aids  in  capturing 
the  Essex,  373. 

Pickens,  Col.  Andrew,  an  American 
officer  in  South  Carolina,  245. 

Pierce  (peers*?  or  purse),  Franklin, 
elected  President,  563. 

Pike's   Peak,  discovery  of  gold,   590. 

Pilgrims,  the,  the  first  settlers  of 
Plymouth,  46. 

Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth,  nomi 
nated  for  President,  323,  339,  note. 

Pirates   in    New   York,    114. 

Pitcairn  (pit'karn),  Major  John,  at 
Lexington,  181. 

Pitt,  William,  his  management  of  the 


Pitt,    \Villiam — Continued. 
French  and  Indian  War,  148;  favors 
colonial     representation     in     Parlia 
ment,    167. 

Pittsburgh    Landing,    battle    of,   642. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  unsettled  in  1745, 
127;  originally  a  fort  of  the  Ohio 
Company,  taken  by  the  French, 
143;  retaken  by  the  English  and 
named  Pittsburgh,  148;  the  Whis 
key  Insurrection,  307;  the  first 
steamboat  on  the  Ohio  River,  337; 
the  railroad  riots,  806. 

Pittsburgh,   battle  of,  382. 

Pleasant    Hill,    battle    of,    715. 

Ploughs,  in  1787,  289  (see  Agricultural 
Machinery). 

Plymouth  (plim'uth),  part  of  the 
Plymouth  Company's  grant,  33;  lo 
cation  and  settlement,  45;  history, 
46;  leaders,  47;  union  with  Massa 
chusetts  Bay,  54. 

Plymouth  Company,  the,  chartered, 
25;  loses  its  charter,  33. 

Plymouth,  N.  C.,  the  Albcmarle  blown 
up,  716. 

Poe,  Edgar  A.,  his  literary  work,  458. 

Poictiers  (poi-teerz'),  the,  captures  the 
Wasp  and  Frolic,  368. 

Police,   a  new  system  introduced.  595. 

Polk  (poke),  James  K.,  elected  Presi 
dent,  515;  orders  Taylor  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  524;  blamed  by  the  Whigs 
for  the  Mexican  War,  527;  death,  558. 

Polygamy,  having  more  than  one  wife 
at  the  same  time,  practised  by  the 
Mormons,  495;  contrary  to  law  in 
the  Territories,  586;  decreases,  822; 
virtually  suppressed,  862. 

Pontiac  (pon'ti-ak),  an  Indian  chief, 
152. 

Pope's  campaign,  664. 

Population.     See   Census. 

Populists.     See   People's   Party. 

Porter,  Admiral  D.  D.,  at  New  Or 
leans,  716. 

Porter,  Capt.  David,  in  command  of 
the  Essex,  366,  373. 

Port  Hudson,  La.,  its  fortifications, 
655;  its  surrender,  682. 

Porto  Rico,  occupied  by  the  Ameri 
can  army,  883;  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  Spain,  885;  transferred  to 
the  United  States,  903;  administra 
tive  and  legal  reforms,  903;  tariff 
for,  904. 

Port  Royal,  N.  S.,  a  French  strong 
hold,  taken  and  kept  by  the  Eng 
lish,  72. 

Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  the  French  colony, 
18;  reached  by  an  English  colony, 
97;  captured  by  the  Union  fleet, 
636;  a  harbor  for  the  blockaders, 
637;  an  expedition  sent  from  it  to 
Florida,  715. 

Portsmouth,    N.    H.,    settlement,    55. 

Portsmouth,   R.   I.,   settlement,  62. 

Portsmouth,  Va.,  plundered  by  the 
British,  245. 


Portugal,  explores. the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  4;  refuses  aid  to  Columbus, 
5;  agreement  with  Spain,  12;  pays  for 
injuries  to  American  commerce,  464. 

Post-office,  in  the  colonies,  163;  un 
der  direction  of  Congress,  281;  the 
Post-office  Department,  296;  in 
crease  of,  452. 

Potomac  (po-to'mok)  River,  the,  the 
first  Maryland  settlement,  86;  its 
upper  country  unsettled  in  1750,  142; 
the  Union  line  in  1861,  629;  Banks 
driven  up  to  it,  662;  Lee  and  Mc- 
Clellan  cross  it  into  Maryland,  665; 
recross  it  into  Virginia,  666;  Lee 
again  crosses  it,  675;  recrosses  it 
into  Virginia,  678. 

Potomac,  Army  of  the,  organized, 
633;  transferred  to  the  Peninsula, 
657;  divided  by  the  Chickahominy, 
659;  fights  the  Seven  Days'  Bat 
tles,  663;  transferred  back  to  the 
front  of  Washington,  664;  fights  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  666;  Fredericks- 
burgh,  667;  Chancellorsville,  674; 
Gettysburg!!,  677;  Grant  takes  com 
mand,  698;  fights  the  battles  of  the 
Wilderness,  701 ;  beseiges  Peters- 
burgh,  704,  730;  takes  it,  732;  pur 
sues  and  captures  Lee's  army,  733; 
is  reviewed  at  Washington,  735. 

Pottawattomies  (pot-a-wot'a-miz),  an 
Indian  tribe,  3. 

Prescott,  Col.  William,  in  command 
of  Bunker  Hill,  194. 

Prescott,  William  H.,  his  literary 
work,  458. 

President,  the,  his  legislative  power, 
281;  executive  powers,  282;  appoint 
ing  power,  283  (see  Tenure  of  Office 
Act,  Civil  Service) ;  mode  of  elec 
tion,  295;  veto  power,  469,  note; 
succession,  818,  831  (see  Impeach 
ment).  (For  list  of  Presidents,  see 
Table  of  Contents.) 

President,  the,  and  the  Little  Belt, 
349,  note;  captured  by  a  British 
fleet,  375. 

Presque  Isle  (presk  eel),  Pa.,  a 
French  post,  142. 

Press   Associations    introduced,    518. 

Prima    Vista    (pre'ma   vees'ta),    10. 

Princeton   College,  founded,   120. 

Princeton,  N.  J.,  Washington  passes 
through  it  in  retreat,  210;  returns 
and  takes  it,  212. 

Printing,  in  Virginia,  84;  in  Philadel 
phia,  126;  first  press  in  America, 
158;  improvements  in,  518. 

Prisoners  of  war,  their  sufferings  in 
the  Revolution,  232;  in  Confederate 
prisons,  725;  deaths,  747. 

Prisons,  the  former  brutal  system, 
461 ;  reformation,  465. 

Prison-ships,    232. 

Privateers,  in  1760,  153;  in  the  Revo 
lution,  197,  240,  243;  definition,  240; 
refusal  to  allow  France  to  fit  out, 
306;  in  the  War  of  1812,  376. 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX  603 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 

Privateers,  Confederate,  why  they 
were  allowed  to  make  captures,  625, 
627;  their  destruction  of  American 
commerce,  672,  696,  720;  capture 
of  three  of  them,  720  (see  Alabama 
Claims). 

Proctor,  Gen.  Henry,  in  command  of 
the  British  forces  in  the  West, 
359-60;  defeated,  361. 

Prohibition  Party,  826,  note,  854. 

Proprietors,  35. 

Protection,  why  it  was  first  demand 
ed,  406  (see  Free  Trade,  Tariff) ; 
definition,  and  argument  for,  425; 
Congress  adopts  it  in  1824,  426;  sup 
ported  by  Clay  and  Adams  (see 
American  System) ;  opposed  by 
Jackson,  470,  476;  supported  by  the 
Whig  Party,  471;  opposed  by  the 
South,  436,  474,  605;  gradually 
abandoned  by  Congress  after  1833, 
478;  again  adopted  in  1842,  501; 
again  abandoned  in  1846,  521;  re 
sumed  in  1861,  691;  still  main 
tained,  825;  attitude  of  the  parties 
in  1888,  836;  in  1892,  854;  reduced  by 
the  Wilson  Bill,  859;  increased  by 
the  Dingley  Bill,  870;  enforced 
against  Porto  Rico,  904;  upheld  by 
the  Republican  platform  in  1900,  906. 

Protectorate.      See   Commonwealth. 

Providence,  R.  1.,  part  of  the  Plym 
outh  Company's  grant,  33;  settle 
ment,  62;  the  Gaspce  affair,  171. 

Public  schools,  provision  for  them  in 
Ordinance  of  1787,  274;  established 
in  the  States,  455,  465;  in  1860,  593. 

Puebla  (poo-u'blah),  Mex.,  taken  by 
Scott,  542. 

Puget's   (pu'jet's)   Sound,  783. 

Pulaski  (pu-las'ki),  Casimir,  joins  the 
American  army,  214;  death,  244. 

Pullman,   111.,  858. 

Puritans,  the,  support  the  Common 
wealth,  41;  not  separated  from  the 
Church  of  England,  48;  found  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  48. 

QUAKERS,  the,  why  they  were  perse 
cuted  in  Massachusetts,  52;  Penn 
obtains  a  colony  for  them,  121;  why 
they  had  been  persecuted  in  Fng- 
land,  122. 

Quebec  (kwe-bek'),  attempt  to  settle 
it,  18;  successful,  19;  a  French 
stronghold,  72;  taken  by  Wolfe, 
151;  one  of  the  four  governmental 
divisions  of  the  territory  ceded  to 
England  by  the  Peace  of  Paris,  154; 
repulses  the  Americans,  200. 

Quebec  Act,  the,   175. 

Queenstown  Heights,  battle  of,  357. 

RAIDS,  of  Jackson  and  Stuart,  662;  of 
Morgan,  684;  against  Sherman,  707. 

Railroads,  how  they  have  given  value 
to  the  Louisiana  purchase,  334;  put 
an  end  to  the  National  Road,  423; 
Trevithick's  and  Stephenson's  en- 


604 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Railroads — Continued. 
gines,  429;  their  effect  on  the 
American  people,  442;  American  en 
gines,  443;  increase  of  railroads, 
444;  their  advantages,  445;  use  of 
anthracite  coal,  446;  assist  immi 
gration,  452  (see  Pacific  Railroads) ; 
effects  in  improving  roads  and 
bridges,  566;  the  panic  of  1857,  585; 
increase  in  thirty  years,  588;  effects 
on  the  West,  589;  defects  in  the 
South,  596;  damage  in  the  Civil 
War,  690,  731  (see  Raids);  rail 
road-building  in  Grant's  first  ad 
ministration,  780;  panic  of  1873,  781; 
the  Pacific  Railroad  system,  783; 
end  of  the  panic,  804;  railroad 
strikes  and  riots,  806. 

Raisin,  battle  of  the  river,  359. 

Raleigh  (raw'li),  Sir  Walter,  his  per 
sonality  and  services,  .22;  attempts 
to  colonize  North  Carolina,  23. 

Randolph,  Edmund,  Attorney-Gen 
eral,  296. 

Randolph,  John,  on  the  terrors  of 
slave  insurrection,  603. 

Ranger,  the,  an  American  war-vessel, 
240. 

Rawdon,  Lord,  in  command  of  the 
British  in  South  Carolina,  254. 

Reaping-machine,   338,  448. 

Reciprocity,  842. 

Reconcentrados  (ray-con-sen-trah'- 

dos),  the,  874,  875. 

Reconstruction,  its  difficulties,  753; 
the  President's  plan,  754-6;  the 
treatment  of  the  freedmen,  758; 
Southern  members  not  admitted  to 
Congress,  759;  Tennessee  recon 
structed  and  readmitted,  760;  the 
Republicans  retain  control  of  Con 
gress,  760;  form  their  plan  of  re 
construction,  760;  and  pass  it,  761; 
six  additional  States  reconstructed 
and  readmitted,  762;  the  four  re 
maining  States  reconstructed  and 
readmitted,  788;  disorder  in  the 
reconstructed  States,  789-90;  use  of 
Federal  troops  to  suppress  it,  791 ; 
what  reconstruction  had  done  for 
the  freedmen,  793;  the  parties  on  re 
construction,  795-6;  the  use  of 
Federal  troops  abandoned,  802;  how 
far  the  plan  of  reconstruction  has 
failed,  804. 

Red  River,  the,  visited  by  De  Soto, 
14;  by  Banks,  715. 

Reed,  Thomas  B.,  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  870. 

Regulators,  the,  fight  Governor 
Tryon,  94. 

Reid,  Capt.  S.  C.,  in  command  of  the 
General  Armstrong,  376. 

Reid,   Whitelaw,  854. 

Reindeer,  the,  taken  by  the  Wasp,  374. 

Remonetization   of   silver,   812. 

Removal   of  the  deposits,  469. 

Representation  of  the  States  in  Con 
gress,  281. 


Representation,  slave,  adopted  into 
the  Constitution,  284;  effects,  508. 

Representatives,  House  of,  legislative 
powers,  281;  powers  of  impeach 
ment,  282;  elects  a  President,  323, 
427;  impeaches  Johnson,  767;  re 
fuses  to  give  the  Cubans  belligerent 
rights,  873. 

Reprisal,  the,  an  American  war-vessel, 
240. 

Republican  Party  (of  1792),  the,  its 
formation,  303;  its  purposes,  304; 
change  in  views,  346;  opposes  the 
Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  321 ;  elects 
Jefferson  and  Burr,  323;  obtains 
control  of  the  government  in  1801, 
331;  re-elects  Jefferson,  339;  opposes 
a  navy,  344;  successful  in  1808,  346; 
in  1812,  351;  in  1816,  409;  the  only 
party  left  in  1820,  413  (see  Demo 
cratic  Party). 

Republican  Party  (of  1856),  the,  its 
formation,  576;  obtains  control  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  580; 
defeated  in  1856,  582;  its  attitude  in 
1860,  608;  successful  in  1860,  609; 
in  1864,  723;  its  attitude  on  recon 
struction,  759;  successful  in  1868, 
768;  in  1872,  796;  in  1876-7,  801; 
in  1888,  840;  defeated  in  1884,  826; 
in  1892,  854;  successful  in  1896,  865; 
in  1900,  906. 

Repudiation,  meaning  of  the  term, 
489. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma  (ra-sah'kah  da 
lah  pahl'mah),  battle  of,  526. 

Resaca,  battle  of,  706. 

Restoration,  the  English,  42. 

Resumption  of  specie  payments,  813. 

Returning    Boards,    798. 

Revenge,  the,  war-vessel,  249. 

Revenue,  the  Federal,  its  trifling 
amount  under  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation,  275;  provided  for  in  the 
Constitution,  281;  raised  by  duties 
on  imported  goods  and  on  some 
domestic  products,  299;  by  a  whis 
key  tax,  307;  increase  of,  333;  de 
crease  during  the  War  of  1812,  354- 
5;  increase  after  the  peace,  407; 
deposited  in  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  408;  increase,  1831-5,  452; 
more  than  the  needs  of  government 
required,  453;  removal  from  the 
Bank,  469;  the  panic  of  1837  de 
stroys  the  revenue,  487;  during  the 
Civil  War,  748;  influence  on  the 
tariff  question,  825;  tobacco  and  in 
toxicating  liquors  alone  subject  to 
taxation,  836. 

Revolt  of  the  American  troops,  239. 

Revolution,  the  American,  its  first 
blood,  181 ;  the  results,  183;  the  war 
at  first  against  Parliament,  190-1; 
in  New  England,  194;  independ 
ence,  204-6;  in  the  North,  207- 
23,  228-32,  237-39;  aid  from  France, 
224-7;  the  war  on  the  ocean,  240-2; 
in  the  South,  244-61;  peace,  262-6. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


605 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Revolution,  the  English,  42. 

Revolution,   the   French,  43,  305. 

Rhode  Island,  part  of  the  Plymouth 
Company's  grant,  33;  a  charter  col 
ony,  35;  the  banishment  of  Wil 
liams,  51;  settlement,  62;  refu-sed 
admission  to  the  New  England 
Union,  66;  the  "  swamp  fight," 
69;  the  Gaspee  affair,  171;  the  Col 
lege  of,  187;  military  operations  in, 
214,  230-2,  247,  259;  no  western  claims, 
271;  not  represented  in  the  Federal 
Convention,  278;  refuses  to  ratify 
the  Constitution,  286;  ratifies,  297; 
the  Dorr  Rebellion,  513. 

Rice,  in  South  Carolina,  98;  a  South 
ern  product,  316. 

Richard,  the,  242. 

Richmond,  Va.,  Burr's  trial,  340; 
capital  of  the  Confederate  States, 
628;  threatened  by  McDowell,  632; 
its  fortifications,  633,  704;  threat 
ened  by  way  of  the  Peninsula,  657; 
relieved  by  the  Seven  Days'  Battles, 
663;  again  threatened  by  way  of 
Fredericksburgh,  667;  by  way  of 


Chancellorsville,     674;       by     Butler, 

rom    L 
ridan,    731; 


700;     cut    off    from    Lynchburgh    by 
Grant, 


Sheridan,    731;     captured   by 

Rich  Mountain,  battle  of,  630. 

Rio  Grande  (re'o  grahn'da),  the,  524. 

Riots,  draft,  693;  railroad,  806;  Chi 
nese,  815;  Cincinnati,  823. 

Ripley,  Gen.  James  W.,  an  officer  in 
the  American  Army,  364;  at  Lun- 
dy's  Lane,  392. 

Rivers  and  harbors,  434. 

Roads,  in  1750,  133;  in  1787,  290; 
turnpike  roads,  312;  roads  in  Ohio 
in  1790,  314;  roads  in  1812,  354;  on 
the  great  lakes,  379;  in  1824,  422; 
the  National  Road,  423;  the  Ameri 
can  System,  434;  how  railroads  have 
influenced  _them,  442,  566. 

Roanoke  (ro-a-noke')  Island,  N.  C., 
the  scene  of  Raleigh's  colonies, 
23;  Newport  sent  thither,  31;  Con 
federate  forts  captured,  652. 

Robertson,  James,  a  Tennessee  pio 
neer,  157,  note. 

Robinson,  John,  pastor  of  the  Pil 
grims  in  Holland,  47. 

Rochambeau  (ro-shahn(g)-bo'),  Count 
de,  lands  with  an  army  at  Newport, 

g7;     takes    part    in    the    capture    of 
jrnwallis,  260. 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  not  on  the  maps  in 

1812,  354;    its  growth,  405. 
Rome,  N.  Y.,  220. 
Roosevelt,    Theodore,    nominated    for 

Viee-President,  906. 
Root,      Elihu,      Secretary      of      War, 

898. 
Rpsecrans    (roze'krans),    Gen.    W.    S., 

in  command  of  the  Union  forces  in 

West    Virginia,    630;      at    Murfrees- 

boro,  645,  679;    pursues  Bragg,  685; 

at  Chickamauga,  685. 


Ross,  Gen.  Robert,  killed  at  Balti 
more,  387. 

Rules,    struggle   over   the,   841. 

Rush,  Richard,  nominated  for  Viee- 
President,  438. 

Russia,  mediates  between  Great  Brit 
ain  and  the  United  States,  400; 
sells  Alaska  to  the  United*  States, 
773;  peace  proposals,  897. 

Rutgers   College,   187. 

SABINE  (so-been')  CROSS  ROADS,  bat 
tle  of,  715. 

Sackett's  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  attacked  by 
the  British,  362. 

Sacramento  (sak-ra-men'to)  River, 
discovery  of  gold  on,  549. 

Sacs   and   Foxes,  3. 

Sagasta  ministry,  the,  policy  in  Cuba, 
874- 

St.  Alban's,  Vt.,  plundered  by  a 
party  from  Canada,  724,  note. 

St.  Augustine  (aw-gus-teen'),  Fla., 
founded,  17;  captured  by  a  force 
from  South  Carolina,  101 ;  besieged 
by  Oglethorpe,  106;  captured  by 
the  Union  forces,  652. 

St.   Clair's  defeat,  308. 

St.   Genevieve    (jen-e-yeev'),    Mo.,    155. 

St.  John,  J.  P.,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  826,  note. 

St.   Kitt's,   W.   I.,  319. 

St.  Lawrence,  the  river,  discovered, 
ii ;  held  by  the  French,  18-19. 

St.  Louis  (loo'is),  Mo.,  founded,  155; 
riots,  806;  trust  conference,  891. 

St.   Paul,   Minn.,  451. 

Salem  (sfl'lem),  Mass.,  settled,  48; 
witchcraft,  53. 

Salt,  found  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  511. 

Saltillo    (sahl-teel'yo),    Mex.,    532. 

Salt  Lake  City,  founded  by  the  Mor 
mons,  586,  862. 

Samoa,  834,  894. 

Sampson,  Rear-Admiral  Wm.  T.,  in 
command  at  Santiago,  882;  bom 
bards  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  883. 

San   Antonio,    Alex.,   539;    Tex.,   531. 

San  Domingo,  attempt  to  annex  it, 
778,  794. 

Sandusky  (san-dus'ki),  O.,  Fort  Ste- 
phenson,  360;  Perry's  victory,  381. 

Sandwich  Islands,  proposed  annexa 
tion  of,  852. 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.,  213,  228. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  its  fine  harbor, 
528;  taken  by  the  American  fleet, 
529;  sudden  growth  of  the  city, 
589;  the  Pacific  Railroad  system, 
783- 

San  Gabriel,  battle  of,  529. 

Sanitary  Commission,  the,  692. 

San  Jacinto   (ja-sin'to),  battle  of,  506. 

San  Jacinto,  the,  arrests  the  Trent. 
638. 

San  Juan  (sahn  Hoo-ahn'),  Cuba,  the 
battle  of,  882. 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  bombarded, 
883. 


606  PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

j^°  The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


San  Juan  de  Ulloa  (sahn  Hoo-ahn'  da 
ool-yo'ah),  535. 

San  Salvador  (sahn   sahl-vah-dorr'),  6. 

Santa  Anna,  commands  the  Mexican 
troops  in  Texas,  506;  at  Buena 
Vista,  532;  at  Cerro  Gordo,  536; 
flees  from  the  city  of  Mexico,  542. 

Santa  Fe  (san'ta  ffi),  N.  M.,  founded, 
17;  taken  by  the  American  forces, 
529- 

Santiago  (sahnt-e-ah'go)  campaign, 
the,  882. 

Saratoga,  Burgoyne's  surrender  at, 
222. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  (soo  san(g)  mah-re), 
French  settlement,  137. 

Savage's  Station,  battle  of,  663. 

Savannah,  Ga.,  settled,  104;  taken  by 
the  '  British,  244;  held  by  them 
through  the  Revolution,  254;  evacu 
ated,  264;  taken  by  Sherman,  714; 
he  leaves  it  on  his  march  north 
ward,  728. 

Savannah,  the,  steams  across  the  At 
lantic,  337,  note. 

Saybrook,    Conn.,    settlement,    57. 

Scarboro,  The  Countess  of,  taken  by 
Paul  Jones's  fleet,  242. 

Schenectady  (sken-ek'ta-di),  N.  Y.,  a 
frontier  settlement,  no;  founded, 
117;  still  on  the  frontier  in  1787, 
291. 

Schley  (shli),  Rear-Adminal  W.  S., 
at  Santiago,  882. 

Schools.     See_Public  Schools. 

Schuyler  (ski'ler),  Gen.  Philip,  in 
command  of  the  American  forces  in 
Canada,  200;  against  Burgoyne,  218; 
succeeded  by  Gates,  221;  the  credit 
due  to  him  goes  to  Gates,  223. 

Scott,  Winfield,  his  services  in  1814, 
364;  at  the  battle  of  Chippewa,  392; 
wounded  at  Lundy's  Lane,  392; 
services  in  Maine,  497;  sent  to 
Mexico,  534;  takes  Vera  Cruz,  535; 
marches  to  the  city  of  Mexico, 
537;  takes  Mexico,  542;  nominated 
for  President,  563;  in  command  of 
the  Union  armies,  629;  retired,  633. 

Screw    propeller,    invented,   447. 

Seals,   taking  of,   in   Bering   Sea,  848. 

Search,  the  right  of,  asserted  by 
Great  Britain,  343;  not  expressly 
given  up  in  1815,  401;  resisted  by 
Great  Britain  in  1861,  638. 

Secession,  the  argument  for  it,  475; 
threatened  in  1850,  552;  not  probable 
in  1856,  583;  South  Carolina  secedes 
in  1860,  610;  the  secessionists  in 
other  States,  6n;  their  arguments 
for  secession,  612;  the  first  seces 
sion  of  1861,  613;  the  second,  or 
border  State,  secession  of  1861,  626. 

Sections,  the,  produced  by  slavery, 
416;  their  positions  on  the  Ameri 
can  System,  435;  as  to  Abolition, 
492;  as  to  Texas,  507;  as  to  slave 
representation,  508;  as  to  the  Mexi 
can  acquisition,  545;  as  to  state 


Sections—  Continued. 
sovereignty  and  secession,  552;  as 
to  California,  553;  increasing  influ 
ence  of  slavery,  571;  their  positions 
as  to  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  575; 
as  to  Kansas,  578;  their  final  posi 
tions,  605-7;  as  to  the  Civil  War, 
749;  as  to  reconstruction,  753. 

Sedition  Law,  the,  321. 

Seminoles  (sem'I-nolz),  the,  a  Florida 
tribe,  414. 

Semmes   (semz),   Capt.    Raphael,   720. 

Senate,  the,  its  formation,  281;  its 
legislative  powers,  281;  its  execu 
tive  powers,  282;  increased  by  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act,  766;  impeach 
ment  of  Johnson,  767;  passes  reso 
lution  giving  the  Cubans  belligerent 
rights,  873. 

Senecas  (sen'e-kaz),  3. 

Separatists,   a  name  for  the   Pilgrims, 

Scrapis  (se-ru'pis),  the,  taken  by  the 
Richard,  242. 

Sergeant   (sahr'jent),  John,  473. 

Sewall,  Arthur,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  and  defeated,  865. 

Seward  (soo'erd),  \Yilliam  H.,  an  an- 
tislavery  leader,  558;  wounded,  737. 

Sewing-machine,   517. 

Seven   Days'   Battles,   663. 

Seven   Pines,   battle  of,   660. 

Seymour  (se'mur),  Horatio,  nomi 
nated  for  President,  768. 

Shafter,  Gen.  \Vm.  R.,  in  command 
of  land  forces  at  Santiago,  882. 

Shannon,  the,  takes  the  Chesapeake, 
372- 

Sharpsburgh,    battle   of,   666. 

Shawnees    (shaw-neez'),    3. 

Shays's   Rebellion,   276. 

Shenandoah  (shen-an-do'ah)  valley, 
the,  held  by  Johnston,  632;  Jackson 
drives  Banks  out  of  it,  662;  Lee 
passes  through  it,  675;  Early  passes 
through  it,  703;  is  beaten  by  Sheri 
dan,  705;  Sheridan  passes  through 
it  on  his  way  to  Grant,  731. 

Sheridan,  Gen.  Philip  H.,  beats 
Early,  705;  cuts  off  Richmond  from 
its  western  supports  and  joins 
Grant,  731. 

Sherman,  John,  Secretary  of  State, 
869. 

Sherman,  Roger,  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  192;  on  the 
committee  to  draft  the  Declaration, 
206. 

Sherman,  Gen.  \Vm.  T.,  one  of 
Grant's  trusted  officers,  679;  at  the 
Yazoo  River,  681 ;  moves  toward 
Atlanta,  706;  leaves  Hood  to 
Thomas,  710;  burns  Atlanta,  712; 
marches  through  Geopgia,  713;  takes 
Savannah,  714;  marches  northward 
to  Goldsboro,  728-9;  seizes  Raleigh, 
and  receives  Johnston's  surrender, 
734;  results  of  his  march,  745. 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  642. 


PRONOUNDING   INDEX 


607 


The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Ship  Island,   Miss.,  636,  654. 

Shreveport,    La.,   715. 

Sigel  (se'gel),  Gen.  Franz,  in  the 
Shenandoah  valley,  700;  defeated, 
703. 

Sigsbee,  Capt.  Chas.  D.,  in  command 
of  the  Maine,  877. 

Silver,  discovered  in  Nevada,  590; 
large  yield,  780;  decline  in  its  value 
compared  with  gold,  810;  demone 
tized,  811;  remonetized,  812;  Act 
of  July  14,  1890,  843;  again  demone 
tized,  856;  "  free  silver  "  in  1896, 
865;  in  1900,  906. 

Sioux   (soo)   wars,  673,  785. 

Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.,  906. 

Sirius,   the,   447. 

Sitting  Bull,  785. 

Six  Nations,  3,  73. 

Skenesboro,   N.   Y.,  219. 

Slavery,  introduced  in  Virginia  and 
maintained  by  the  English  kings, 
39;  forbidden  in  Vermont,  188; 
slavery  in  New  England,  75;  in 
Georgia,  105;  in  New  York,  115;  in 
1775,  188;  an  element  of  weakness 
in  the  South  in  the  Revolution,  236; 
slavery  provisions  in  the  Constitu 
tion,  284;  forbidden  in  the  North 
west  Territory,  274;  position  of 
Congress  definitely  stated,  301;  ef 
fects  of  the  cotton-gin,  316;  in  the 
two  sections  in  1820,  415-6;  in  Louisi 
ana,  415;  in  Missouri,  417;  in  the 
Territories,  418;  effects  of  slavery  on 
manufactures,  435,  597;  in  Arkansas, 
454;  proposal  to  abolish  slavery  (see 
Abolitionists);  riots,  493;  petition, 
494;  slavery  in  Texas,  505;  State  rep 
resentation  in  Congress,  508;  the 
slavery  question  becomes  more 
pressing,  516;  in  the  Mexican  ac 
quisition,  545 ;  positions  of  the  sec 
tions,  545;  attempt  to  prohibit,  546; 
rise  of  the  Free-Soil  Party,  547; 
slavery  in  California,  553;  political 
questions  of  1850,  553;  compro 
mised,  555;  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law, 
556;  anti-slavery  leaders,  558;  in 
fluence  of  slavery  on  public  affairs, 
571 ;  how  the  Democratic  Party  es 
caped  it  for  the  time,  573;  the  Kan 
sas-Nebraska  Act,  574;  the  Repub 
lican  Party,  576;  slavery  in  Kansas, 
578-80;  election  of  1856,  583;  effects 
of  slavery  on  the  South,  597,  605;  in 
the  Territories,  598;  the  Dred  Scott 
decision,  600;  the  effect  on  the  Dem 
ocratic  Party,  602,  608;  the  John 
Brown  raid,  604;  the  sections  in 
1860,  606-7,  612;  parties,  608;  eman 
cipation,  669;  results  abroad,  671; 
the  object  of  the  war,  749;  aboli 
tion  by  Amendment,  757;  after 
effects,  758;  free  labor  in  the 
South,  824. 

Slave-trade,  the  foreign,  in  1775,  188; 
in  1787,  279. 

Sloughter  (slaw'ter),  Gov.  Henry,  113. 


Smith,  John,  77. 

Smith,  Jpspeh,  495. 

Smithsonian   Institution,  the,  519. 

"  Sons  of  Liberty,"   165. 

Soto,   Hernando   de,    14. 

South  Carolina,  discovered,  9;  part  of 
the  London  Company's  grant,  32; 
settled,  97;  products,  98;  districts, 
99;  early  wars,  101-2;  has  troops 
at  Fort  Necessity,  145;  in  1775  and 
1880,  184;  military  operations  in  the 
State  during  the  Revolution,  203, 
245-51,  254,  264;  Western  claims,  271; 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  273; 
nullification,  476-7;  secedes,  610; 
military  operations  in,  622,  636,  688, 
728;  reconstructed  and  readmitted, 
762;  disorders  in,  790. 

Spain,  aids  Columbus,  5;  secures  his 
discoveries,  7;  further  Spanish  dis 
coveries,  9;  agreement  with  Portu 
gal,  12;  explorations  in  the  interior 
of  North  America,  13,  14;  con 
quers  Mexico,  14;  explores  the 
Pacific  coast,  15;  drives  the  French 
from  St.  Augustine,  18;  colonies 
south  of  the  United  States,  30; 
early  wars  with,  101,  106;  enters 
the  war  in  1762,  153;  gives  up  Flor 
ida  and  receives  Louisiana,  154-5; 
enters  the  Revolutionary  War 
against  Great  Britain,  227,  note;  re 
gains  Florida,  263;  agrees  by  .treaty 
to  the  free  navigation  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  315;  transfers  Louisiana  to 
France,  334;  the  Spanish  in  Florida 
aid  the  British,  398;  Spain  trans 
fers  Florida,  414;  refuses  to  sell 
Cuba,  570;  joins  France  against 
Mexico,  695;  the  Virginins  case,  779; 
war  with  Cuba,  863;  policy  toward 
Cuba,  874,  878;  war  with  the  United 
States,  879;  her  Asiatic  fleet  de 
stroyed  at  Manila,  881 ;  signs  treaty 
of  peace  at  Paris,  885;  transfers  the 
Philippines  to  the  United  States, 
900;  transfers  the  control  of  Cuba 
to  the  United  States,  902;  withdraws 
her  troops  from  Cuba,  902;  trans 
fers  Porto  Rico  to  the  United 
States,  903. 

Spanish  War,  the,  declaration  of  war, 
879;  preparations  for  war,  880;  bat 
tle  of  Manila  Bay,  881 ;  the  Santiago 
campaign,  882;  occupation  of  Porto 
Rico,  883;  friction  with  the  Cubans, 
884;  peace,  885;  finances  of  the 
war,  886. 

Specie  Circular,  the,  485. 

Specie  payments  resumed,   1879,  813. 

Spoils  system,  the,  defined,  467. 

Spottsylvania  Court-house,  battle  of, 
701. 

Springfield,   111.,  738. 

Springfield,   Mass.,  276. 

Stamp  Act,  the,  passed  by  Parlia 
ment,  164;  resisted,  166;  repealed, 
167. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  the,   166. 


6o8 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Stamp  duties  before  the  Revolution, 
164;  in  1898,  886. 

Standish,  Miles,  the  soldier  of  the 
Plymouth  colony,  47. 

Stanton,  E.  M.,  removed  by  Johnson, 
766. 

Stark,  John,  at  Bennington,  220. 

Star  of  the  West,  the,  driven  back 
from  Fort  Sumter,  617. 

Star-Spangled   Banner,  the,  387,  note. 

State  Department,  the,  298. 

Staten  (stat'n)  Island,  N.  Y.,  occu 
pied  by  the  British,  207;  held  by 
them  during  the  war,  229,  231; 
threatened  by  Washington,  2^8. 

States,  the,  the  formation  of  State 
governments,  204;  whence  they  de 
rived  their  authority,  269;  their  ac 
tion  restricted  by  the  Articles  of 
Confederation,  270;  boundary  Dis 
putes,  271-2;  send  delegates  to  a 
Federal  Convention,  279;  restric 
tions  on  their  action  under  the 
Constitution,  281 ;  new  States  and 
Amendments,  284;  their  ratification 
of  the  Constitution,  286;  the  great 
States  of  the  Northwest,  274;  the 
electoral  system,  295;  the  Republic 
ans  incline  to  favor  the  States, 
304;  slave  States,  415;  the  Western 
States  in  1835,  449;  the  Eastern 
States,  450;  the  States  go  into  in 
ternal  improvements,  453;  distinc 
tion  between  State  Rights  and  State 
Sovereignty,  475;  the  right  of  the 
States  to  secede,  475;  to  nullify  the 
laws  of  the  United  States,  280,  476; 
how  State  representation  in  Con 
gress  was  related  to  slavery,  508; 
the  right  of  voting  in  the  States, 
513;  proposed  annexation  of  slave 
States,  570;  the  Kansas  struggle 
between  free  and  slave  States,  578- 
80;  secession  of  a  part  of  the  States, 
610  (see  Secession) ;  the  work  of 
the  State  conventions,  614;  of  the 
doctrine  of  State  Sovereignty,  615; 
action  of  the  border  States,  626; 
the  .  Southern  State  governments 
overthrown,  755;  reconstructed,  762 
(see  Reconstruction). 

Steamboat,  the,  Fitch's  attempt  to 
produce  one,  312;  need  of  a  steam 
boat  on  Western  rivers,  315,  note; 
in  the  Louisiana  purchase,  334;  Ful 
ton's  success,  337;  put  to  use  on 
American  rivers,  405,  422;  builds 
up  Western  towns,  449;  put  to  use 
on  the  ocean,  337,  note,  447;  facili 
tates  migration,  452. 
Steam  war-vessels,  Fulton's  attempt, 

384;    the  screw  propeller,  447. 
Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  elected  Vice- 
President  of  the  Confederate  States, 
614. 

Stevenson,    Adlai    E.,    Vice-President, 
854;      renominated     for     Vice-Presi- 
dent,  906. 
Steuben  (stoi'ben),  Baron  von,  214. 


Stewart,  Capt.  Charles,  in  command 
of  the  Constitution,  375. 

Stillwater,  the  battle  of,  222. 

Stone  River,  battle  of,  645. 

Stone,  Samuel,  a  Connecticut  pio 
neer,  50. 

Stonington,  Conn.,  attacked  by  the 
British,  384. 

Stony  Point,  capture  of,  237. 

Story,  William,  a  distinguished  Amer 
ican  lawyer,  459. 

Strikes,  the  Railroad,  806,  853,  858. 

Stuart,  Gen.  J.  E.  B.,  a  Confederate 
cavalry  officer,  662. 

Stuyvesant  (sti've-sant),  Peter,  the 
last  Dutch  governor  of  New  Nether- 
land,  109. 

Suffrage  (or  vote),  the  right  of,  789. 

Sullivan,  Gen.  John,  in  command  of 
the  attack  on  Newport,  230;  chas 
tises  the  hostile  Indians,  232. 

Sulu  (zoo'-loo),  Archipelago,  the,  901. 

Sumner,  Charles,  an  antislavery  lead 
er,  558;  assault  upon  him,  581. 

Sumter,  Gen.  Thomas,  a  Revolution 
ary  leader  in  South  Carolina,  248, 
250. 

Supreme  Court,  the,  its  duties,  283, 
5995  established,  298;  decides  the 
question  of  slavery  in  the  Territo 
ries,  600;  its  decision  rejected,  601; 
the  income  tax  decision,  860;  Anti- 
Trust  Act  decision,  891. 

Surplus,   the,   836. 

Susquehannah  (sus-kwe-han'na)  Riv 
er,  the,  89. 

Swamp   Fight,   the,   69. 

Swanzey  (swon'zi),  Mass.,  attacked 
by  the  Indians,  68. 

Syracuse,  N.   Y.,  354. 

TAGALOS  (ta-ga'los),  the,  a  Philip 
pine  tribe,  900. 

Tampa  Bay,  Fla.,  14,  880. 

Taney  (taw'ne),  Roger  B.,  Chief  Jus 
tice,  481. 

Tariff  (see  Revenue,  Free  Trade,  Pro 
tection),  the  province  of  the  States 
under  the  Confederation,  275;  trans 
ferred  to  Congress  by  the  Consti 
tution,  281;  the  first  Tariff,  299; 
the  Protective  Tariff  of  1824,  426; 
increased  in  1828,  434;  the  Com 
promise  Tariff  of  1833,  478;  the 
semi-protective  Tariff  of  1842,  501; 
the  Revenue  Tariff  of  1846,  521 ;  the 
Protective  Tariff  of  1861,  691;  re 
ceipts  from  it,  748;  still  maintained, 
825;  reduced,  859;  the  Dingley 
tariff,  870;  the  Porto  Rican  tariff, 
904. 

Tariff  Com,mission,  the,  825. 

Tarleton,  Major,  a  British  cavalry 
officer,  247;  beaten  at  the  Cowpens, 
251;  plunders  Virginia,  255. 

Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  238. 

Taxes,  in  Great  Britain,  161;  in  the 
colonies,  162;  commercial  taxation, 
169  (see  Parliament);  under  the 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  609 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Taxes — Continued. 

Confederation,  275;  under  the  .Con 
stitution,  281 ;  during  the  Civil 
War,  691 ;  in  the  reconstructed 
States,  789. 

Taylor,  Gen.  Richard,  surrenders, 
727. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  beats  the  Seminoles 
at  Lake  Okechobee,  463;  ordered 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  524;  beats  the 
Mexicans  and  drives  them  across 
the  Rio  Grande,  526;  follows  to 
Monterey,  531 ;  deprived  of  part 
of  his  army,  532;  wins  the  battle  of 
Buena  Vista,  533;  returns  to  the 
United  States,  533;  elected  Presi 
dent,  548;  death,  557. 

Tea  Tax,  the,    173. 

Tecumseh  (te-kum'se),  defeated  at 
Tippecanoe,  350;  killed  at  the 
Thames,  361. 

Tehuantepec    (te-hoo-ahn'te-pek),    896. 

Telegraph,  the,  its  invention,  510. 

Telephone,  its  invention,  805. 

Tennessee,  the  first  settlers  from 
North  Carolina,  94,  157,  note,  235; 
North  Carolina's  claim  ceded  to  the 
United  States,  273;  admitted  as  a 
State,  302;  secedes,  626;  occupied 
by  the  Union  forces,  641 ;  military 
operations  in,  640-3,  645,  648,  685-7, 
711;  reconstructed,  760. 

Tennessee  River,  the,  reached  by  De 
Soto,  14;  military  operations  on, 
641,  648. 

Tennessee,  the,  taken  by  Farragut, 
718. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act,  the,  its  passage 
and  purpose,  766;  repealed,  831. 

Territories,  the,  first  cessions  by  the 
States  to  the  United  States,  273; 
their  government  under  the  Consti 
tution,  284;  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
274;  acquisition  of  Louisiana,  334; 
of  Florida,  414;  slavery  in  the  Ter 
ritories,  415-19  (see  Compromises); 
the  Mexican  acquisition,  528,  530, 
543J  polygamy  in  the  Territories, 
586,  913;  acquisition  of  Alaska,  and 
summary,  773;  acquisition  of 
Hawaii,  888. 

Texas,  supposed  at  first  to  be  a  part 
of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  334,  note; 
the  claim  of  the  United  States  ex 
changed  for  Florida,  414;  becomes 
a  part  of  Mexico,  but  is  settled  by 
American  citizens,  505 ;  secedes  from 
Mexico,  506;  its  annexation  desired 
by  the  South,  507;  reasons  for  the 
desire,  508;  annexation,  516;  ad 
mission,  522;  boundary,  524;  com 
promised,  555;  secedes,  613;  refuses 
the  first  terms  of  reconstruction, 
762;  reconstructed  and  readmitted, 
788. 

Thames    (temz),    battle    of   the   river, 

Third  term,  refused  by  Washington, 
310. 


Thomas,  Gen.  George  H.,  at  Mill 
Spring,  640;  at  Chickamauga,  685; 
sent  back  to  Tennessee,  710;  de 
feats  Hood,  711. 

Thornton,  Capt.,  capture  of,  525. 

Three  Friends,  the,  seized  and  for 
feited,  873. 

Thurman,  A.  G.,  nominated  for  Vice- 
President,  840. 

Ticonderoga  (ti-kon-de-ro'ga),  held  by 
Montcalm,  148;  taken  by  the  Eng 
lish,  150;  by  Ethan  Allen,  199;  by 
Burgoyne,  218. 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  nominated  for 
President,  797;  his  election  dis 
puted,  798;  the  decision,  801. 

Tippecanoe  (tip-pe-ka-noo'),  battle  of, 
350. 

Titusville,  Pa.,  590. 

Tobacco,  22,  78. 

Tohopeka  (to-ho-pe'ka),  battle  of,  396. 

Toledo,  O.,  a  French  post,  139; 
Wayne's  victory,  308. 

Tompkins,  Daniel  D.,  elected  Vice- 
President,  409;  re-elected,  413. 

Tories,  meaning  of  the  term,  170,  479; 
in  the  Middle  States,  207;  in  the 
South,  246;  after  the  war,  266. 

Toronto    (to-rqn'to),    Can.,    362. 

Torpedoes,  their  first  use,  384;  against 
the  Albemarle,  716;  in  Mobile  Bay 
718. 

Travel,  difficulties  of.     See   Roads. 

Treasury  Department,  the,  298. 

Treaties,  the  treaty  power,  281;  Jay's 
treaty,  309;  treaty  of  Ghent,  400;  ex 
tradition  treaties,  502;  treaty  of 
Washington,  777;  the  San  Domingo 
treaty,  778;  the  Chinese  treaty,  815; 
treaty  of  Paris,  885. 

Trent,  the,  arrested  by  the  San 
Jacinto,  638. 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  Washington's  retreat 
through,  210;  breaks  camp  at,  212. 

Trevithick  (trev'ith-ik),  Richard,  his 
locomotive,  429. 

Tripolitan  War,  the,  342,  404. 

Trusts,  838,  891. 

Truxton,  Capt.  Thomas,  in  command 
of  the  Constellation,  319. 

Tryon,   Gov.   William,  94. 

Tunis  (tu'nis),  342,  404. 

Turner,  Nat,  leader  of  unsuccessful 
negro  insurrection,_  462. 

Tuscaroras  (tus-ka-ro'raz),  an  Indian 
tribe,  3;  driven  north  to  New  York, 
95- 

Tutuila  (too-too-e'la),  an  island  of 
the  Samoan  group,  894. 

Tyler,  John,  elected  Vice-President, 
498;  becomes  President,  500;  vetoes 
the  Bank  Acts,  501 ;  quarrels  with  the 
Whigs,  501;  makes  an  unsuccessful 
treaty  of  annexation  with  Texas, 
507;  hurries  the  annexation,  516. 

UNITED  STATES,  location,  i;  first  vis 
ited  by  whites,  10;  English  coloni 
zation,  23,  25-31,  foil.;  the  New 


6io 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


United  States—  Continued. 
England  Confederation,  66;    general 
union    of    the    colonies    against    the 
French,    145,    159;     against    taxation 
by  Parliament,  166,  171,  177;  against 
the  use  of  force  by  Parliament,  191; 
against  the  king,  and  for  entire  in 
dependence,    204-5    (see    Revolution, 
the    American) ;     independence    ac 
knowledged,     263;       boundaries     in 
1783,    263;     becomes    a    nation,    268; 
the   Articles    of    Confederation,   270; 
their  failure,   275;     the   Constitution 
formed,     279;       ratified,     286;       the 
United    States   in    1787,    288-92;     the 
Constitution  inaugurated,  294;    first 
legislation,  297-8;    parties,  303-4  (see 
Republican    Party    of    1792,    Federal 
Party) ;    the   United   States   in    1795, 
312-16;      hostilities    against    France, 
319;    the  United  States  in  1800,  324; 
the  first  great  change  of  party  gov 
ernment,       331-2;       acquisition       of 
Louisiana,  334;    the  steamboat,  337; 
the  Tripolitan  War,  342;    difficulties 
with  Great  Britain,  343-50;    war,  351; 
the    United    States    in    1810,    353-5;, 
failures   in   the    North,   356-64;     suc 
cesses  on  the  ocean,  365-77;    on  the 
lakes,    378-82;     disasters   on    the   At 
lantic  coast,  383-8;    dissatisfaction  at 
home,     389-90;       successes     in     the 
North,     391-3;      in     the     Southwest, 
394-9;     peace,   400-1;     results   of   the 
War     of     1812,     403;      the     United 
States  in   1815,  405-8;    acquisition   of 
Florida,  414;     the   Missouri   dispute, 
415-18;     the    Monroe    Doctrine,    420; 
the    United    States    in    1824,    421-4; 
Free  Trade  and  Protection,  425;  in 
vention     of    the    railroad,    429    (see 
Railroads);     the   American    System, 
434;    the  United  States  in   1835,  449- 
65;     political   struggles   under  Jack 
son,  466-81 ;    financial  difficulties  un 
der    Van    Buren,    484-9;     antislavery 
agitation,  492-4;    the  Mormons,  495; 
the  log-cabin  campaign  of  1840,  498; 
the    Oregon    question,    504;     rise    of 
the  Texas  question,  505-6;    the  tele 
graph,    510;     annexation    of    Texas, 
515-16;     the    United    States    in    1845, 
517-20;      the     Mexican     War,     524-7; 
seizure  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  528-30; 
operations     in     Northern      Mexico, 
531-3;     in    Central    Mexico,    534*42; 
peace,    543;     summary   of   territorial 
acquisitions,     544;      sectional     strife 
over    the    Mexican    acquisition,    545- 
56;     gold    discovered    in    California, 
549-50;    party  changes,  558,  560;  the 
United   States   in    1853,   564-6;     natu 
ralization    questions,    567-8;     Japan, 
569;     the    Filibusters,    570;     slavery 
and     politics,     571-3;      the     Kansas- 
Nebraska    Act,    574-83;     rise    of   the 
Republican   Party,  576;    the  Kansas 
struggle,  578-80;     the  United   States 
in    1860,    588-95;      how    slavery    had 


United  States— Continued. 

pushed    the    sections   apart,    596-607; 
the  Dred  Scott  case,  599-602;  parties 
in   1860,  608-9;     secession,  610-3;     the 
Confederate  States,  614;    the  second 
great   change   in   party  government, 
621;    surrender  of  Fort  Sumter,  622; 
Civil  War,  623-7;    the  opposing  lines 
in    1861,    628-9;      military    events    of 
1861,  630-7;  the  Trent  affair,  638;  mili 
tary  events  of  1862  in  the  West,  639- 
48;  on  the  coast,  649-55;  in  the  East, 
656-68;    Emancipation,   669;    financial 
affairs,  670;    privateering,  672;    mili 
tary  events  of  1863  in  the  East,  674-8; 
in  the  West,  679-87;  on  the  coast,  688; 
the  West,  679-87;    on  the  coast,  688; 
the  United  States  in  1863,  690-3;  in 
tervention     of    France    in     Mexico, 
695;     military  events  of   1864  in  the 
East,   699-705;     in   the   West,   706-14; 
on   the  coast,   715-18;   on  the  ocean, 
720;      the    United     States    in     1864, 
721-6;    conclusion  of  the  war,  727-35; 
assassination   of  the   President,   736- 
9;     military    summary    of    the    war, 
740-9;     acquisition    of    Alaska,    773; 
Reconstruction,    753-64    (see    Recon 
struction);     impeachment    of    Presi 
dent  Johnson,    765-8;     the  treaty   of 
Washington,      776-7;       the      United 
States   in    1876,    780-7;     the   disputed 
election  of  1876,  797-802;    the  United 
States  in  1878,  804-9;    the  silver  ques 
tion,    810-2,    865;     resumption,    813; 
refunding,      814;       assassination      of 
President  Garfield,  818;    the  United 
States   in    1884,    820-6;     in    1888,    840; 
the  Panama  Canal,  834;    the  United 
States  in  1885,  841-8;    relations  with 
Cuba  grow  acute,  873;    war  declared 
against   Spain,  879;   preparations  for 
war,   880;     naval   victory  at   Manila, 
881 ;     military    operations    in    Cuba, 
882,  884;    occupation  of  Porto  Rico, 
883;  peace  with  Spain,  885;  annexa 
tion    of    Hawaii,    888;     government 
support   of   Pacific   railroads   ended, 
890;     partition    of    Samoan    Islands, 
894;     the    Hague    peace    conference, 
897;     war    in    the    Philippines,    900; 
government  of  the  Philippines,  ooi; 
administrative    measures     in     Cuba, 
902;      free    trade    denied    to    Porto 
Rico,  904 

United  States,  the,  captures  the  Mace 
donian,  368. 

Universal  Suffrage,  789. 
Uplandt  (oop'lahnt),  Pa.,  123. 
Utah   (yoo'tah),  a  Territory,  555   (see 
Mormons)  ;   admitted  as  a  State,  862. 

VALLEY  FORGE,  217. 

Valparaiso  (vahl-pah-ri'so),  373,  850. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  50. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  elected  Vice- 
President,  473;  President,  480;  de 
feated  in  1840,  498;  in  1848,  548;  not 
nominated  in  1844,  515. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

|W  The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


6n 


Van  Twiller,  Wouter,  governor,  109. 

Venezuela,   861. 

Vera  Cruz  (va'rah  kroos),  Mex.,  taken 
by  Scott,  534-5. 

Vermont,  part  of  the  Plymouth  Com 
pany's  grant,  33;  early  history,  65; 
slavery  forbidden,  188;  Vermonters 
seize  Ticonderoga,  199;  repulse  a 
British  expedition  at  Bennington, 
220;  not  yet  recognized  by  Con 
gress,  220;  admitted,  302. 

Verrazzani   (veR-Rat-sah'ne),   n. 

Vespucci  (ves-poot'che),  Amerigo, 
gives  a  name  to  America,  8. 

Veto  Power,  the,  belongs  to  the 
President,  281,  469,  note;  how  Presi 
dent  Johnson  lost  the  advantage  of 
it,  759.765;  Cleveland's  use  of  it, 
830. 

Vicksburgh,  Miss.,  Grant's  first  move 
ment  toward  it,  646;  its  fortifica 
tions,  655;  besieged  by  Grant,  680- 
2;  surrenders,  682. 

Vice- President,  the,  his  duties,  282; 
mode  of  election,  295. 

Vincennes  (vin-senz'),  Ind.,  a  French 
post,  139;  taken  by  Clarke,  235. 

Virginia,  probably  yisited  by  Cabot, 
10 ;  named  by  Raleigh,  23;  difference 
between  Raleigh's  "  Virginia  "  and 
the  modern  State,  27;  part  of  the 
London  Company's  grant,  32;  be 
comes  a  royal  colony,  35;  slavery, 
39;  first  settlement,  76;  John  Smith, 
77;  western  claims,  79,  271;  the 
"  Old  Dominion,"  80,  note;  Bacon's 
Rebellion,  82;  life  in  Virginia,  83-4, 
108;  organizes  the  first  Ohio  Com 
pany,  141;  endeavors  to  drive  away 
the  French,  142-4;  calls  for  the 
Stamp  Act  Congress,  166;  Virginia 
in  1775  and  1880,  184;  calls  for  in 
dependence,  205;  conquers  the 
Northwest  Territory,  235;  military 
operations  in  the  State,  252,  255, 
258-61;  cedes  the  western  claims  to 
the  United  States,  273;  calls  for 
the  Federal  Convention,  278;  rati 
fies  the  Constitution,  286;  negro 
insurrection  of  1831,  462;  John 
Brown's  raid,  604;  secedes,-  626; 
one  of  the  Confederate  States,  628 
(see  West  Virginia)  ;  military  opera 
tions  in  the  State  begin,  628  (see 
United  States) ;  rejects  the  first 
terms  of  reconstruction,  762  (elec 
toral  votes  not  counted  in  1868),  768, 
note;  reconstructed  and  readmitted, 
788. 

Virginia  City,  Nev.,  discovery  of  sil 
ver,  590. 

Virginia,  the.     See  Merrimac. 

Virginius,  the,  seized  by  a  Spanish 
war  vessel,  779. 

Vote,  the  right  to,  789. 

Vulcanized  rubber,  invented,  491. 

Wachusett  (wa-choo'set),  the,  captures 
the  Florida,  720. 


Walker,   William,   570,   note. 

Wampanoags  (wom-pa-no'agz),  an  In 
dian  tribe,  68. 

War  Department,  the,  298;  investiga 
tion  of  the  charges  against  it, 
896. 

Warner,   Seth,  at   Bennington,  220. 

War  Power,  the,  the  power  to  declare 
and  make  war,  281 ;  exercised 
against  Great  Britain,  351 ;  against 
Mexico,  527;  the  Civil  War,  625; 
the  Spanish  War,  879;  war  in  the 
Philippines,  900. 

Warren,  Gen.  Joseph,  killed  at 
Bunker  Hill,  196,  note. 

War  revenue  act  of  1898,  886. 

Warwick  (wor'rik),  R.  I.,  settlement, 
62. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  named  as  the  na 
tional  capital,  299;  capital  removed 
thither,  324;  burned  by  the  British, 
386;  its  safety  secured  in  1861,  623; 
in  the  line  of  war,  629;  its  fortifi 
cations,  633;  threatened  by  the 
Merrimac,  650;  necessity  of  protec- 
ing  it,  657,  659;  threatened  by  Jack 
son,  662;  by  Jackson  and  Lee,  664; 
by  Early,  703;  general  review  at 
the  capital,  735. 

Washington,  George,  sent  to  Presque 
Isle,  142;  against  Fort  Duquesne, 
143;  surrenders  Fort  Necessity, 
144;  one  of  Braddock's  aids,  146; 
member  of  the  Continental  Con 
gress,  192-3;  appointed  to  command 
the  American  armies,  191 ;  takes 
command  at  Cambridge,  197;  drives 
the  British  from  Boston,  198;  moves 
his  army  to  New  York,  208;  is  de 
feated  on  Long  Island,  209;  retreats 
beyond  White  Plains,  209;  through 
New  Jersey,  210;  Congress  makes 
him  dictator  and  retires,  211;  wins 
the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Prince 
ton,  212;  holds  northern  New  Jer 
sey,  213;  moves  his  army  to  Phila 
delphia,  215;  defeated  at  Chad's  Ford 
and  Germantown,  216;  his  winter 
quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  217; 
scheme  to  take  the  command  away 
from  him,  223;  fights  the  drawn 
battle  of  Monmouth,  228;  holds  the 
British  in  New  York  City,  229; 
his  difficulties,  234,  256;  marches  to 
Yorktown,  257-8;  bes'ieges  and  cap 
tures  it,  260-1;  favors  the  Federal 
Convention,  278;  is  made  its  Presi 
dent,  279;  is  elected  President,  287; 
inaugurated,  294;  re-elected,  304;  re 
quests  recall  of  Genet,  306;  sup- 
presses  Whiskey  Insurrection,  307; 
Farewell  Address,  310;  recalled  to 
the  head  of  the  army,  319;  death, 
325. 

Washingtonian  Societies,  460. 

Washington   (State),  835. 

Washington,  treaty  of,  777. 

Wasp,  the,  takes  the  Frolic,  368;  the 
Reindeer  and  Avon,  374. 


: 


6l2 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 

The  references  are  to  Sections,  not  to  pages. 


Watling's  Island,  6. 
Watson,     Thomas     E.,     defeated     for 
Vice-President,  865. 

Waxhaws,  battle  of  the,  247. 

Wayne  (wan^),  Gen.  Anthony,  at 
Stony  Point,  237;  defeats  the  In 
dians,  308. 

Weather  Bureau,  the,  821. 

Weaver,  Gen.  J.  B.,  nominated  for 
President,  854. 

Webster,  Daniel,  459;  a  leader  of  the 
Whig  Party,  471;  desired  for  Presi 
dent,  480;  his  share  in  the  extradi 
tion  treaty,  501;  death,  558. 

Webster,  Noah,  457. 

Weehawken  (we-haw'ken),  the,  takes 
the  Atlanta,  688. 

West,  A.  M.,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  826,  note. 

West,  Benjamin,  a  painter,  187. 

Western  Pacific  Railway,  890. 

Western   Reserve,  the,  273. 

West  Florida,  154. 

West  Indies,  the,  discovered  by  Co 
lumbus,  6;  French  possessions  in, 
230,  266. 

West  Virginia,  rejects  secession,  626; 
the  Confederates  driven  out  of  it, 
630;  admission,  694. 

Wethersfield,   Conn.,   settlement,   58. 

Weyler  (vuv-larr'),  Gen.  Valeriano, 
Governor-General  of  Cuba,  873;  re 
called,  874. 

Wheeler,  Wm.  A.,  nominated  for 
Vice-President,  797;  his  election  dis 
puted,  798;  decision,  801. 
hig  Party,  the  supporters  of  the 
American  System,  434;  at  first  take 
the  name  of  National  Republicans, 
437;  defeated  in  1828,  438;  support 
the  Bank,  471;  defeated  in  1832, 
473;  take  the  name  of  Whigs,  479; 
defeated  in  1836,  480;  successful  in 
1840,  498;  demand  another  Bank, 
501;  quarrel  with  the  President,  501; 
defeated  in  1844,  515;  oppose  the 
Mexican  War,  527;  successful  in 
1848,  548;  the  party  goes  to  pieces, 
560;  completely  defeated  in  1852, 
563;  disappears,  572;  succeeded  by 
the  Republican  Party,  576. 

Whigs,  in  the  Revolution,  170;  in  the 
South,  246;  in  England,  479. 

Whipping,  punishment  by,  461. 

Whiskey  Insurrection,  the,  307. 

Whiskey  Ring,  the,  794. 

Whitefield  (whit'feeld),  George,  a  re 
vivalist,  133. 

White,  Hugh  L.,  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  480. 

White,  John,  leader  of  one  of  Ra 
leigh's  colonies,  23. 

White  Plains,  battle  of,  209. 

Whitney,    Eli,   his   cotton-gin,   316. 

Whittier,  John  G.,  his  literary  work, 
457- 


put 
Whij 


Wildcat   banks,    484-5. 

Wilderness  Campaign,  the,  701-2. 

Wilkinson,   Gen.   James,  363. 

William  and   Mary  College,  84. 

William   (of  Orange),  King,  42. 

Williamsburgh,   battle   of,   659. 

Williamsburgh,   Va.,  82. 

Williams,  Roger,  banished,  51;  settles 
in  Rhode  Island,  62. 

Wilmington,    Del.,   29. 

Wilmington,  N.  C.,  held  by  Corn- 
wallis,  253,  255;  recovered  by  the 
Americans,  261;  a  port  for  blockade- 
runners,  652,  715;  taken  by  the 
Union  forces,  716. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  the,  546. 

Wilson   tariff   bill,   859. 

Wilson,   Henry,  Vice-President,  796. 

Wilson's  Creek,  battle  of,  635. 

Winchester,   battle   of,   705. 

Winchester,  Gen.  James,  359. 

Windsor  (win'zur),  Conn.,  settlement, 
5.8. 

Winslow,  Capt.  John  A.,  in  command 
of  the  Kcarsarge,  720. 

Winthrop,  John,  of  Massachusetts,  49. 

Winthrop,   Jr.,   John,    of   Connecticut, 

6.1- 

Wisconsin,  claimed  by  Virginia,  271; 
a  wilderness  in  1828,  430;  admission, 
522;  forest  fires,  784. 

Witchcraft,  the   Salem,   53. 

Withlacoochee  (with-la-coo'chee),  Riv 
er,  the,  463. 

Wolfe,  Gen.  James,  at  Quebec,  150-1. 

Wood,  Gen.  Leonard,  Governor-Gen 
eral  of  Cuba,  902. 

Woodford,  Gen.  Stewart  L.,  minister 
to  Spain,  873. 

Wool,  Gen.  John  E.,  531. 

Worcester    (woo'ster),    Mass.,    276. 

World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  845. 

Wyoming  (wl-o'ming),  Pa.,  plundered 
by  Tories  and  Indians,  232;  claimed 
by  Connecticut,  273. 

Wyoming,  admitted  to  the  Union, 
846. 

YALE  COLLEGE,  founded,  75. 

Yazoo  River,  the,  681. 

Yellow-fever,  the,  808,  902. 

Yeo,  Sir  James  L.,  in  command  of 
the  British  fleet  on  Lake  Ontario, 
380. 

York,   Can.,   362,   386,  note. 

York,   Pa.,  217. 

York   River,  the,  255,  657. 

Yorktown,  Va.,  seized  and  fortified 
by  Cornwallis,  255;  besieged  by 
Washington  and  Rochambeau,  260; 
surrendered,  261;  taken  by  the 
Union  forces,  659;  anniversary  of 
Cornwallis's  surrender,  820. 

ZOLLICOFFER  (zol'li-kof-fer),  GEN. 
FELIX,  killed  at  Mill  Spring,  640. 


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